Rising Cyclone Threats and Mangrove Vulnerability

For Prelims: Cyclones, Mangroves, Carbon Storage, Biodiversity, Hadley Cell, Coral Reefs, Wetlands, Sundarban, Aquaculture, Algal Blooms, Great Barrier Reef, Bengal Tigers.  

For Mains: Impact of climate change on cyclones and mangroves and their implications. Suggestions to deal with increased cyclones and degraded mangroves. 

Source: TH 

Why in News? 

A new study revealed that climate change is making cyclones more intense and expanding their reach into previously unaffected regions. 

• It also revealed that half of the world’s mangroves could face severe risks by 2100, threatening coastal protection, carbon storage, and biodiversity. 

Note: Climate change is complex, so experts use Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs) to understand its effects. Each SSP shows a different future. 

• SSP3 describes a divided world with little focus on the environment. 
• SSP5 shows a world with rapid fossil fuel use and heavy resource depletion. 
• SSP5-8.5 is the SSP5 pathway plus a radiative forcing, the amount of extra energy being added to the planet’s surface. 

What are Key Findings of the Study on Cyclones and Mangroves? 

• Increased Cyclone Intensity and Range: Under the SSP5-8.5 scenario (high emissions and fossil fuel use), tropical cyclone belts may shift away from the equator, increasing risks to higher-latitude ecosystems.  
  • East Asia, Central America, the Caribbean, Madagascar, and Oceania face rising cyclone exposure. 
• Shorter Recovery Time for Ecosystems: In resilient ecoregions (historically adapted to cyclones), the recovery time between high-intensity storms could drop from 19 years (1980-2017) to 12 years (2015-2050). 
  • Some ecosystems may shift into irreversible states due to frequent disturbances. 
• Mangroves Under Threat: By 2100, up to 56% of global mangroves could face high to severe risk under SSP5-8.5.  
  • Southeast Asia is especially vulnerable with 52–78% mangroves at risk. 

 

Why is Cyclone Intensity and Range Increasing? 

• Warmer Ocean Temperatures: Cyclones draw energy from warm ocean waters (≥26.5°C), and climate change raises sea surface temperatures, supplying more heat and moisture. 
  • It leads to higher wind speeds (increased intensity), more rapid intensification (storms strengthening quickly), and heavier rainfall (warmer air holds more moisture). 
• Changing Wind Patterns: As global temperatures rise, the Hadley Cell (atmospheric circulation near the equator) expands, pushing storm tracks toward higher latitudes, while changes in wind patterns (e.g., jet streams) shift cyclone paths, exposing regions like Madagascar, East Asia, and parts of the Mediterranean to new risks. 
• Rising Sea Levels: Higher sea levels from melting ice and warming oceans worsen coastal flooding during storms, even without an increase in cyclone frequency. 
• Changes in Atmospheric Stability: Lower wind shear in some regions (e.g., tropics) helps cyclones grow stronger, while higher shear in areas like the Atlantic can weaken storms, causing cyclones to shift to new regions. 
  • Wind shear is the change in wind speed or direction over a short distance in the atmosphere—either horizontally or vertically.        
• Polar Warming: Warming in the polar regions, which is faster than in the tropics, reduces the equator-to-pole temperature gradient, shifting cyclone activity away from the equator.    
• Degraded Ecosystems: Human activity and climate stress have weakened natural buffers like mangroves, coral reefs, and wetlands, which protect against storm surge, absorb wave energy, and aid recovery.  
  • Losing them exposes inland areas more and makes vulnerability worse over time. 

Why is the Mangroves Ecosystem Under Severe Risk? 

• Climate Change: 
  • More Powerful Cyclones: Warmer oceans fuel stronger cyclones and storms that uproot mangroves, erode soils, and increase saltwater intrusion, harming freshwater species. 
    • E.g., Amphan (1st super cyclone in the Bay of Bengal since 1999), damaged around 28% of Sundarban mangroves and harmed floral diversity by increasing soil salinity. 
  • Rising Sea Levels: Mangroves face a dual threat as they are unable to shift inland due to farmlands, urban expansion, and flood-control structures, while rising sea levels flood them from the coast, causing a coastal squeeze.  
    • When sea levels rise faster than 7 mm per year, mangroves struggle to adapt and risk dying from prolonged submersion. 
  • Extreme Weather: Coral reef die-offs (from warming) remove natural wave barriers, exposing mangroves to stronger waves. 
• Human Induced Destruction: 
  • Deforestation for Aquaculture: Since 1980, 35% of the world’s mangroves have vanished due to aquaculture, unchecked development, and climate stress.  
    • In Southeast Asia, home to a third of global mangroves, cover declined by 3.4% between 2000 and 2016, with palm oil and rice farms also replacing mangroves. 
  • Coastal Development: Tourism resorts, ports, and road development lead to habitat fragmentation.  
    • E.g., Mumbai lost 40% of its mangroves to urban expansion over the past 20 years. 
  • Pollution & Overharvesting: Oil spills (e.g., 2020 Mauritius) suffocate mangrove roots, plastic waste blocks waterways, sewage triggers algal blooms, and illegal logging persists in Africa and Asia. 

Consequences of Losing Mangroves Ecosystem 

What are the Implications of Increasing Cyclone Intensity and Geographic Spread? 

• Ecological Devastation:  
  • Stronger cyclones uproot mangroves while saltwater intrusion kills freshwater-dependent plants. E.g., 62% of mangroves in southwest Florida suffered canopy damage from Hurricane Irma. 
  • Coral Reef Destruction: Cyclones damage coral reefs that protect shorelines, while warmer seas and storms trigger mass bleaching (e.g., Great Barrier Reef). 
  • Biodiversity Loss: Coastal ecosystems (seagrass, estuaries) face habitat fragmentation. Endangered species (e.g., Bengal tigers in Sundarbans) lose refuge. 
• Human & Economic Crises: 
  • Deadlier Storms & Flooding: Storms with higher wind speeds destroy homes and infrastructure, while heavier rainfall causes inland flooding. E..g, Cyclone Idai (2019) killed over 1,300 people in Mozambique. 
  • Mass Displacement & Migration: Small island nations (e.g., Fiji, Bahamas) face existential threats, with a 2021 World Bank report warning that +200 million people could be displaced by 2050 due to the climate crisis. 
  • Economic Losses: Climate-related damage rose from USD 450 billion (2000–2004) to over USD 1 trillion (2020–2024). E.g., Hurricane Helene (2024) alone caused USD 100+ billion in damage, making it one of the costliest US hurricanes. 
• Food Security Risks: Rice paddies & crops in cyclone-prone Asia (India, Bangladesh) face salinization. 
  • E.g., Cyclone Amphan washed away about 1.7 million hectares of productive cropland and aquaculture farms and killed 2.1 million animals in India (West Bengal and Odisha). 
• New Regions at Risk: Mediterranean, South Atlantic, and higher latitudes (e.g., Japan, New Zealand) may face first-ever cyclones. 
  • Mega-cities like Miami, Shanghai, and Lagos, built for past climates, face catastrophic damage. 

Way Forward 

• Building Resilience Against Cyclones: Expand cyclone tracking with satellites and AI; conduct evacuation drills and build storm-resistant infrastructure. Restore coral reefs, wetlands, and protect mangroves as natural barriers. 
  • According to the UN Environment Programme, every USD 1 invested in climate change adaptation generates a USD 4 return by reducing economic losses and cutting disaster recovery costs. 
• Restoring Mangrove Ecosystems: Strictly enforce bans on illegal logging and aquaculture in mangrove areas while scaling up restoration efforts using “Building with Nature” approaches. Implement. 
  • Implement zoning laws to limit sprawl, engage communities with incentives, and promote ecotourism and sustainable fishing to reduce harmful practices. 
• Climate Mitigation Efforts: Accelerate the shift to renewable energy to keep warming under 2°C, enforce carbon pricing and stricter emission regulations, strengthen NDCs, and boost climate financing for vulnerable nations. 
• International Cooperation: The Loss and Damage Fund should prioritize cyclone-prone and mangrove-rich nations. Use debt-for-nature swaps (e.g., Indonesia, Bangladesh) and develop stress-tolerant mangroves. 

Drishti Mains Question:

Q. Discuss the impact of climate change on the intensity and geographic spread of tropical cyclones. How can this affect vulnerable ecosystems and human settlements?

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

Prelims

Q. Consider the following statements: (2020)

1. Jet streams occur in the Northern Hemisphere only. 
2. Only some cyclones develop an eye. 
3. The temperature inside the eye of a cyclone is nearly 10ºC lesser than that of the surroundings. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

(a) 1 only 

(b) 2 and 3 only 

(c) 2 only 

(d) 1 and 3 only 

Ans: (c) 

Q. In the South Atlantic and South-Eastern Pacific regions in tropical latitudes, cyclone does not originate. What is the reason? (2015)

(a) Sea surface temperatures are low 

(b) Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone seldom occurs 

(c) Coriolis force is too weak 

(d) Absence of land in those regions 

Ans: (b) 

---

Mains

Q. Tropical cyclones are largely confined to the South China Sea, Bay of Bengal and Gulf of Mexico. Why? (2014)

Environmental Costs of Electric Vehicles

For Prelims: Electric vehicles, Internal combustion engine, Lithium, Particulate matter, FAME-I and II 

For Mains: Environmental trade-offs of electric mobility in India, Challenges in battery recycling and lithium-ion waste management 

Source:IE 

Why in News? 

A recent study reveals that while electric vehicles (EVs) reduce greenhouse gas emissions, their heavier weight leads to increased tyre wear, releasing more microplastic pollution—challenging the notion that EVs are fully eco-friendly. 

What are the Environmental Concerns Regarding EVs? 

• Tyre Microplastic Pollution: EVs are typically 15–20% heavier than internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicles due to battery packs weighing 300–900 kg, leading to increased tyre stress and wear.  
  • Primary fragmentation, caused by sudden braking or road impacts, releases micro-sized particles, while sequential fragmentation from routine wear produces larger particles.  
  • Smaller fragments (1–10 μm) remain airborne, contributing to air pollution, while larger ones (>100 μm) settle on roads, affecting soil and water.  
    • Rapid acceleration in EVs further increases friction and heat, intensifying microplastic emissions. 
  • While EVs cut tailpipe emissions, they increase non-exhaust pollution, presenting a complex environmental trade-off. 
• Lithium-Ion Battery Hazards: Manufacturing a single EV releases 16–19 tonnes of CO₂, almost double that of an ICE vehicle (7–10 tonnes). 
  • Producing 1 tonne of lithium requires approximately 1.89 million liters of freshwater affecting groundwater and ecosystems. 
• Recycling and Waste Management Deficit: Often EV batteries end up in landfills after damage or end-of-life. Proper recycling infrastructure is inadequate. 
  • Cobalt and lithium residues can take centuries to break down and pose lasting risks to human and environmental health. 
• Grid Dependency & Fossil Fuels: EVs are only as green as the grid that powers them. India’s grid is still coal-dominated. Coal-fired power plants emit 800–850g of CO₂/kWh, which powers most EVs in India. 
  • Many public charging stations run on diesel generators, ironically increasing emissions. 

 

What are the Gaps in EV Regulation in India? 

• Inconsistent and Fragmented Policy Implementation: Existing air pollution standards focus on particulate matter (PM) 2.5 and PM10, but tyre particles are often smaller and unregulated. No current standards adequately address non-exhaust emissions such as tyre and brake wear. 
  • India is currently woefully underprepared to manage the massive volume of EV battery waste expected over the coming decade. 
  • Critically, India lacks robust legislation to prevent the illegal dumping of spent lithium-ion batteries. The existing legal framework including the E-waste (Management and Handling) Rules, 2011, E-waste (Management) Rules, 2016, and the 2018 amendment has evolved in terms of the range of materials covered. However, it fails to provide a cohesive, dedicated framework for the safe disposal and recycling of EV batteries. 
    • This regulatory gap risks turning India into a dumping ground for domestic and imported battery waste. 
  • EV schemes like FAME-I and II have had limited impact due to inconsistent implementation. While states like Gujarat and Delhi have strong policies, many lack even a basic EV roadmap.  
  • The absence of uniform standards across states hinders nationwide scalability and integration. 
• Limited Scope of Government Incentives: The EV efforts focus mostly on 3-wheelers and buses in select urban areas, leaving out rural and semi-urban adoption potential. 
  • EV efforts are mainly limited to intra-city transport, and long-distance inter-city electrification lacks a viable roadmap. 
• Charging Infrastructure Gaps: The current charging infrastructure is insufficient and underdeveloped, especially outside metro cities. 
  • There is no national standardisation of charging equipment and battery technologies, resulting in compatibility issues across EV brands and stations. 
  • High cost (investment ranging around Rs 1 crore or more) for setting up a charging station is a major deterrent, especially without guaranteed demand or utilization. 
• Lack of Dedicated Regulatory Authority: There is currently no single agency or department dedicated to EV regulation and coordination across ministries (Transport, Power, Renewable Energy, Environment, etc.). 
  • The absence of a unified institutional mechanism hampers efficient decision-making, monitoring, and rapid response to industry needs. 
• Inadequate Focus on Supply Chain Security: India lacks a secure and diversified supply of critical raw materials like lithium (India imported 70% of its lithium-ion cells in 2023 ), cobalt, and rare earth elements needed for EV batteries.   
  • There is no comprehensive national strategy to build domestic reserves, create international partnerships, or incentivize local alternatives (e.g., sodium-ion batteries). 
• Limited Consumer Awareness and Adoption Support: Consumer adoption remains low due to limited awareness of EV benefits, range anxiety and battery concerns, and poor promotion of home or decentralized charging options. 

What are India’s Key Initiatives to Promote EV Adoption? 

• PM E-DRIVE Scheme 
• New Electric Vehicle Policy 2024 
• Faster Adoption and Manufacturing of Electric Vehicles (FAME) Scheme II 
• National Electric Mobility Mission Plan (NEMMP) 
• National Mission on Transformative Mobility and Battery Storage 
• Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme 
•  Go Electric campaign 

How can India Balance EV Growth with Environmental Sustainability? 

• Promote Green Manufacturing: Encourage EV and battery manufacturing powered by renewable energy. Under schemes like the PLI for Advanced Chemistry Cell (ACC) batteries, manufacturing should be tied to low-carbon practices. 
  • Integrate solar and wind energy with public and private EV charging stations. Initiatives like PM-KUSUM and PM Surya Ghar Muft Bijli Yojana can support decentralised, clean electricity for charging. 
  • Encourage Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) technologies, which can help balance intermittent renewable sources. 
• Circular Economy Framework: Implement a robust battery recycling and reuse ecosystem. India's Battery Waste Management Rules, 2022, make Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) mandatory for battery manufacturers to ensure environmentally sound management. 
  • The EU’s “Battery Passport” model, which tracks the carbon footprint and lifecycle of batteries, could be replicated in India to enhance transparency. 
• Standardisation and Green Supply Chains: Establish a National EV Regulatory Authority to coordinate across ministries (Transport, Power, Environment, Industry). 
  • Incentivize Green Supply Chains and encourage localisation of critical components and green logistics in PLI schemes. 
  • India must develop strategic partnerships like Lithium-Deal with Argentina for ethical sourcing of lithium, cobalt, and nickel with traceability. 
• Consumer Awareness and Demand-Side Management: Launch national campaigns on financial and environmental benefits of EVs (similar to Ujala LED campaign success). 
  • Promote home-based charging solutions and smart charging incentives to manage grid load. 
• Urban Planning and Sustainable Mobility Integration: Integrate EV planning with NEMMP and Smart Cities Mission. 
  • Encourage mixed-use development, NMT (non-motorized transport) integration, and EV-first zones in city planning. 
  • For example Oslo’s low-emission zones and city-wide EV parking privileges reduce urban air pollution effectively. 
• Carbon Accounting and Environmental Monitoring: Establish a dedicated environmental impact agency for EVs to track carbon emissions, life-cycle impact, and battery disposal. 
  • Incorporate EVs into India’s carbon market framework, allowing tradable emission reductions. Align EV policies with India’s Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) under the Paris Agreement. 

Conclusion 

To balance EV growth with environmental sustainability, India must move beyond just electrification to green electrification. The focus must shift toward sustainable battery supply chains, clean power, recycling, and integrated urban planning. By learning from global leaders and tailoring policies to India’s unique challenges, the country can ensure that its EV revolution not only reduces emissions but also creates a cleaner, circular, and climate-resilient future. 

Drishti Mains Question:

Despite their promise of clean transport, Electric Vehicles (EVs) have environmental drawbacks. Examine the ecological trade-offs associated with EV growth in India.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)   

Mains

Q. How is efficient and affordable urban mass transport key to the rapid economic development in India? (2019)

Sagarmatha Sambaad and Preserving Himalayas

For Prelims: Sagarmatha Sambaad, Himalayas, International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation, Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF), International Big Cats Alliance, Snow Leopards, Biodiversity Hotspot, Kailash Mansarovar, Indian Monsoon, Char Dham Project, Hindu Kush Glaciers, Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA), Ramsar sites, Eco-Sensitive Zones (ESZs). 

For Mains: Significance of Himalayas and mountain ecosystems, Key challenges associated with the Himalayan and way forward. 

Source: PIB 

Why in News? 

Union Environment Minister represented India at the inaugural Sagarmatha Sambaad in Nepal, reaffirming India’s commitment to climate action and calling for collaborative efforts to protect the Himalayas and mountain ecosystems. 

• The Himalayan ecosystem is vital to sustaining India’s environmental integrity and driving its economic resilience.

What is Sagarmatha Sambaad? 

• About: It is a biennial global dialogue forum initiated by the Government of Nepal, named after Sagarmatha (Mount Everest), to deliberate on pressing global issues, with an emphasis on mountain ecosystems and climate resilience. 
  • It coincided with the ”International Year of Glaciers’ Preservation 2025”. 
• Theme and Focus: The theme of first edition (2025) was “Climate Change, Mountains and the Future of Humanity.” 
  • The focus areas include the impact of climate change on mountain ecosystems, particularly glacial melt, lake outbursts, biodiversity loss, and downstream effects on water cycles and natural disasters. 
• India’s Stand: India outlined a 5-point call for global action to address the shared ecological challenges of mountainous regions. 
  • Enhanced Scientific Cooperation: Joint monitoring of climate and biodiversity in high-altitude ecosystems. 
    • India stressed regional cooperation via the International Big Cats Alliance to conserve snow leopards, tigers, and leopards, and lauded its success with 718 snow leopards recorded under Project Snow Leopard (2019–2023). 
  • Building Climate Resilience: Develop early warning systems and adaptation infrastructure for mountain hazards like glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF). 
  • Empowering Mountain Communities: Prioritize local welfare, integrate traditional knowledge, and support green livelihoods. 
  • Providing Green Finance: Urged for adequate and predictable climate finance aligned with the Paris Agreement. 
  • Recognizing Mountain Perspectives: Advocate for mountain-specific concerns in global climate and development forums 

What is the Significance of Himalayan Ecosystem for India? 

• Hydrological Significance: The Himalayas, known as Asia’s water towers, is a major source of rivers like the Ganga, Brahmaputra, and Indus, with vast snow and ice deposits supplying around 1.2 trillion cubic meters of water annually to support agriculture, drinking water, and hydropower. 
• Ecological Significance: The Himalayas, a biodiversity hotspot, host over 10,000 vascular plants, 979 birds, and 300 mammals—including the snow leopard, red panda, Himalayan tahr, and Himalayan monal—across diverse climate zones from tropical to alpine. 
• Cultural Significance: The Himalayas hold spiritual significance in Tibetan Buddhism and Hinduism, featuring sacred sites like Kailash Mansarovar, Kedarnath and Badrinath, attracting millions of pilgrims annually. 
• Economic Significance: The Himalayas support millions through tourism, agriculture, and forestry, with sustainable growth driven by organic farming, eco-tourism, and renewable energy.  
  • In states like Uttarakhand, West Bengal, Tripura, Assam, and Meghalaya, the tourism sector has been contributing more than 10% to the state GDP.  
  • The Ganges river basin supports around 40% of India’s population and is vital for agriculture and industry. 
• Renewable Energy: Himalayan rivers offer vast hydropower potential, vital for India’s energy security and green transition.  
  • The Northeastern states, especially Arunachal Pradesh with its 13,000 MW Lohit Basin project (2023), lead in hydropower development. 
• Climate Regulation: Acting as a colossal natural shield, the Himalayas block frigid winds from Central Asia, thus preventing extreme cold in northern India.  
  • Their towering presence also influences the Indian monsoon by forcing moist oceanic air to rise, causing heavy rainfall vital for crops.  
  • Without the Himalayas, much of India could face harsher winters and erratic monsoons, disrupting food security.      
• Carbon Sink: The vast forests and alpine meadows of the Himalayan region act as an important carbon sink, absorbing significant amounts of atmospheric carbon dioxide and helping to mitigate climate change.  
  • These ecosystems store carbon in their dense vegetation and soil, reducing greenhouse gas levels and buffering global warming impacts.  
  • Protecting Himalayan forests from deforestation and degradation is crucial to maintain their carbon sequestration capacity and preserve regional climate stability. 

 

What are the Key Issues Related to India's Himalayan Ecosystem? 

• Climate-Driven Disasters: The Himalayas face increasing disasters like avalanches, landslides, and flash floods due to rising temperatures, glacier retreat, and erratic weather, including more frequent cloudbursts.  
  • Recent events like the 2025 Uttarakhand avalanche and 2023 Sikkim Glacial Lake Outburst Flood highlight rising disaster risks. 
• Fragile Economic Development: Slope cutting, deforestation, and blasting weaken mountain stability, causing landslides and subsidence.  
  • Heightened seismic activity in the Indus–Tsangpo zone combined with unsustainable projects led to crises like the 2023 Joshimath land subsidence linked to the Char Dham Project. 
• Retreating of Glacier: Himalayan glaciers, key to India’s rivers, are rapidly melting due to global warming, risking water scarcity, droughts, reduced hydropower, and conflicts;  
  • A 2023 report warns Hindu Kush glaciers may lose 75% volume by century’s end if trends continue. 
  • For instance, over the last 25 years, Gangotri glacier has retreated more than 850 meters. 
• Biodiversity Loss: Deforestation, encroachment, and climate change drive significant biodiversity loss in the Himalayas, also fueling invasive species like crofton weed that threaten native pine trees. 
  • Also, it is leading to displacement of species, for instance, about 90% of the endemic species in the Sikkim Himalayas have been displaced.  
• Unregulated Tourism: Tourism growth, while economically beneficial, often leads to littering, pollution, and strain on local resources.  
  • Overcrowding in pilgrimage sites like Kedarnath and trekking trails damages fragile alpine ecosystems.  
  • The Himalayan Clean-Up (2022) waste audit revealed that 92.7% of the trash was plastic, with 72% consisting of non-recyclable plastic.

What Measures can India Adopt for Sustainable Development of Himalayan Ecosystem?

• Enhancing Climate-Resilient Infrastructure: Infrastructure development must follow strict Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) and use nature-based solutions like bio-engineering and climate-resilient designs.  
  • Promote zero-emission transport and electric vehicle corridors in high-altitude towns to reduce pollution.  
• Promoting Sustainable Tourism: Tourism should be regulated with carrying capacity limits, eco-tourism models, and responsible visitor frameworks.  
  • Permit-based entry can control overcrowding in fragile areas, promoting low-impact tourism. 
• Glacier Conservation and Sustainable Water Management: India must prioritize monitoring and protecting Himalayan glaciers through scientific research and advanced technologies like remote sensing and GIS mapping to track glacier health and melting patterns.  
  • Additionally, developing sustainable water management systems—including artificial recharge (ice stupas), rainwater harvesting, and efficient irrigation—can help communities adapt to changing water availability due to glacier shrinkage. 
• Promote Afforestation and Forest Conservation: India should implement large-scale afforestation and reforestation programs to restore degraded forest areas, enhancing biodiversity and strengthening the ecosystem’s role as a carbon sink.  
  • Community-based forest management involving local people can ensure sustainable use of forest resources.  
  • For example, joint forest management (JFM) initiatives have successfully empowered local tribes in Uttarakhand (Van Andolan in Uttarakhand) to protect forests. 
• Implement Climate Change Adaptation Strategies: Adopting early warning systems for glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs) and climate-resilient agricultural practices will help communities cope with climate change impacts.   
  • For instance, rainwater harvesting has been introduced successfully in some Himalayan villages to mitigate drought conditions. 
• Promote Sustainable Livelihood: Promote organic farming, permaculture, and climate-resilient crops to boost food security and prevent soil degradation.  
  • Incentivize eco-friendly handicrafts, herbal products, and adventure tourism to diversify economies.

Conclusion 

The Sagarmatha Sambaad underscores the critical importance of international collaboration to safeguard the Himalayas’ fragile ecosystems. It calls for urgent action on climate resilience, biodiversity protection, and sustainable development to address challenges such as glacial melt, natural disasters, and environmental degradation, ensuring the region’s long-term ecological and cultural survival. 

Drishti Mains Question:

Examine the major environmental challenges faced by the Himalayas and suggest sustainable development strategies to address these issues

 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs) 

Prelims

Q. Consider the following pairs: (2020)

Peak                   -            Mountains 

1. Namcha Barwa      -    Garhwal Himalaya
2. Nanda Devi           -   Kumaon Himalaya
3. Nokrek           -          Sikkim Himalaya

Which of the pairs given above is/are correctly matched? 

(a) 1 and 2 

(b) 2 only 

(c) 1 and 3 

(d) 3 only 

Ans: (b) 

Q. If you travel through the Himalayas, you are likely to see which of the following plants naturally growing there? (2014) 

1. Oak 
2. Rhododendron 
3. Sandalwood 

Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

(a) 1 and 2 only 

(b) 3 only 

(c) 1 and 3 only 

(d) 1, 2 and 3 

Ans: (a) 

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Mains 

Q1. Differentiate the causes of landslides in the Himalayan region and Western Ghats. (2021) 

Q2. How will the melting of Himalayan glaciers have a far-reaching impact on the water resources of India? (2020) 

Q3. “The Himalayas are highly prone to landslides.” Discuss the causes and suggest suitable measures of mitigation. (2016)

State of the World’s Animal Health Report

Source: DTE 

Why in News?  

The World Organisation for Animal Health (WOAH) released its first-ever State of the World’s Animal Health report, warning of the growing spread of infectious diseases like African Swine Fever, avian influenza, and Lumpy skin disease, which threaten agrifood system stability. 

What are the Key Concerns Raised by the State of the World’s Animal Health Report? 

• High Zoonotic Risk: 47% of reported diseases are zoonotic, capable of infecting humans. 
• Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR) Threat: Without urgent action, AMR could impact 2 billion people and cause economic losses of USD 100 trillion by 2050. 
• Cross-Species Transmission Increasing: The spread of infectious diseases like avian influenza is increasingly crossing species barriers, affecting a wider range of animals beyond their traditional hosts, as outbreaks in mammals doubled. 
• Drivers of Zoonotic Disease:  Climate change is altering ecosystems and enabling the spread of pathogens into new regions and species.  
  • Global trade and the increased movement of animals and animal products have amplified the risk of disease transmission across borders. 
  • Expanding human-wildlife contact increases zoonotic spillover risk, worsened by weak veterinary systems and poor vaccine access in developing nations. 

What are the Key Diseases Affecting Animals Across the Globe?

Disease	Cause	Description
Avian Influenza	Influenza virus  (Orthomyxoviridae family)	It is a highly contagious viral disease affecting domestic and wild birds, and occasionally mammals including humans. It is caused by multiple virus subtypes (e.g., H5N1, H5N3, H5N8).
African Swine Fever (ASF)	ASF virus  (Asfarviridae family)	It is a highly contagious viral disease of domestic and wild pigs, whose mortality rate can reach 100%.
Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD)	Aphthovirus (Picornaviridae family)	It is a highly contagious viral disease affecting cloven-hoofed animals like cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs, causing fever and blister-like sores.
Peste des Petits Ruminants	Morbillivirus (Paramyxoviridae family)	It affects goats, sheep, and some wild relatives of domesticated small ruminants, as well as camels. It was first reported in Ivory Coast in 1942.
Lumpy Skin Disease	Lumpy skin disease virus (Poxviridae family).	It is a cattle disease causing fever, skin nodules, weight loss, and swollen lymph nodes.
Bluetongue	Bluetongue virus (Reoviridae family)	It is an infectious, non-contagious, vector-borne viral disease affecting wild and domestic ruminants like sheep, goats, cattle, buffaloes, deer, African antelope, and camels.
New World Screwworm	NWS fly larvae (Calliphoridae family )	It infests the living flesh of warm-blooded animals, most commonly livestock and less commonly birds, pets, and humans.
Nipah Virus	Nipah virus (Paramyxoviridae family)	It was first detected in pigs in Malaysia and Singapore. It affects animals like pigs and horses, causing respiratory and neurological symptoms, with serious potential for human transmission.
Rinderpest	Morbillivirus (Paramyxoviridae family)	It is also known as cattle plague, is a highly contagious viral disease that primarily affected cattle, buffalo, and other even-toed ungulates. Rinderpest was the first animal disease to be globally eradicated by vaccination.

What is the World Organization for Animal Health? 

• About: The WOAH, originally founded as the Office International des Epizooties (OIE) in 1924, is an intergovernmental organization headquartered in Paris, France. 
  • It was founded in response to the global rinderpest outbreak. 
  • The World Assembly of Delegates is WOAH’s top decision-making body, comprising representatives from all 183 member countries, including India.  
    • It meets annually in Paris, with each country having one vote.  
• WOAH’s Standards and Guidelines: WOAH develops and maintains a comprehensive set of reference documents, including: 
  • The Terrestrial Animal Health Code and its Manual of Diagnostic Tests and Vaccines for Terrestrial Animals (covering mammals, birds, reptiles, bees). 
  • The Aquatic Animal Health Code and its diagnostic manual (covering fish, amphibians, molluscs, crustaceans). 
• WOAH’s and WTO: WOAH is formally recognized under the World Trade Organisation (WTO) Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures (SPS Agreement) as the international standard-setting body for animal health.  
  • WTO members are encouraged to base their sanitary measures on WOAH’s standards to harmonize regulations globally and facilitate trade. 

 

 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

Q. H1N1 virus is sometimes mentioned in the news with reference to which one of the following diseases? (2015)

(a) AIDS 
(b) Bird flu 
(c) Dengue  
(d) Swine flu 

Ans: (d)

Q. The term ‘ACE2’ is talked about in the context of (2021)

(a) Genes introduced in the genetically modified plants 
(b) Development of India’s own satellite navigation system 
(c) Radio collars for wildlife tracking 
(d) Spread of viral diseases 

Ans: (d)

Xenon Gas

Source: TOI 

Four British climbers are the first to reach Mount Everest’s summit using Xenon gas by speeding up their acclimatisation. 

• About Xenon Gas: Xenon (stranger gas) is a rare, colourless, odourless, chemically stable, and non-reactive gas found in trace amounts in Earth's atmosphere. It is available in solid, liquid, and gaseous states. 
  • Commercially, xenon is obtained as a by-product of the air separation process, where air is fractionally distilled into oxygen and nitrogen.   
  • Xenon is a noble gas (inert gas) and therefore they do not react with any other elements. However, xenon can form compounds with fluorine and oxygen. 
• Applications of Xenon:  
  • Mountaineering: It has neuroprotective properties that enhances oxygen delivery, supports acclimatisation, and guards against altitude sickness and hypoxia-related damage. 
  • Medical: It acts as a natural anesthetic and, when inhaled with oxygen, stimulates hormone production that increases red blood cell count. It is also used to measure blood flow and image the brain, heart, and lungs. 
  • Lighting: Used in high-intensity lighting such as flash lamps, strobe lights, and car headlights because it emits bright white light. 
  • Industry: Xenon is used in nuclear energy plants, as filling gas in tubes for televisions and radios, and for etching silicon microprocessors using xenon difluoride.  
  • Space Exploration: Used as fuel for ion propulsion systems in satellites and deep-space missions. 
• Toxicity: Xenon compounds are strong oxidizing agents that are highly toxic and explosive.

Read More: 150 years of the Periodic Table 

Autism

Source:TH 

Autism (also referred to as autism spectrum disorder (ASD)) is a complex condition influenced by genetic and environmental factors, with rising cases driving research and calls for early diagnosis and support. 

• Autism: It is a diverse group of brain development conditions characterized by difficulties in social interaction, communication, and atypical behaviors. 
  • About 1 in 100 children worldwide has autism, though prevalence varies and is often underreported in low- and middle-income countries. 
  • People with autism often have co-occurring conditions like epilepsy, depression, anxiety, and may exhibit behaviors such as sleep issues and self-injury. Intellectual abilities range from severe impairment to above-average levels. 
• Causes: Autism likely results from a combination of genetic factors (like family history, older parents, or genetic conditions like Down syndromes) and environmental influences during pregnancy or birth (such as pollution exposure or prematurity). These factors may increase risk but don't directly cause autism. 
  • Childhood vaccines do not increase the risk of autism. 
• Assessment and care: Early, evidence-based interventions can significantly enhance quality of life for autistic individuals. 
• India’s Initiatives for Autism: The National Trust (1999 Act) provides legal guardianship and welfare services for individuals with autism. 
  • The DISHA scheme provides early intervention and school readiness for children (0–10 years) with disabilities. 
  • The Sahyogi scheme trains Care Associates through Caregiver Cells (CACs) to provide skilled care for Persons with Disabilities. 

Read more: Autism Spectrum Disorder 

Official Secrets Act 1923

Source: IE 

A travel blogger from Haryana was arrested for alleged espionage and promoting pro-Pakistan content under Sections 3 and 5 of the Official Secrets Act, 1923 & Section 152 of the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS). 

Official Secrets Act (OSA), 1923 

• About:  It originated during the colonial-era Indian Official Secrets Act, 1889, aimed at suppressing press dissent and made more stringent in 1904 under Lord Curzon and finally revised in 1923. 
• Purpose: To prevent espionage and unauthorized disclosure of classified sensitive information, protecting India’s sovereignty, integrity, and strategic interests, especially from foreign threats. 
• Applicability: Applicable to all Indian citizens, including government officials, both in India and abroad, and to non-citizens if they are involved in acts of espionage. 
• Sections of OSA, 1923: 
  • Section 3 of the Act criminalises espionage and acts against national security, including the possession of sensitive documents or the sharing of secret codes, with a punishment of imprisonment for up to 14 years. 
  • Section 5 penalises unauthorised disclosure, possession, retention, or failure to return official documents, including those who knowingly receive such information. 
  • Section 10 deals with penalty for harboring spies  

Section 152 of the BNS 

• Section 152 of BNS (deals with sedition) criminalizes intentional acts—by words, signs, electronic means, or finance—that incite secession, rebellion, or threaten India’s sovereignty and integrity, while exempting legitimate and lawful criticism of the government.

Read More: Arrest Under Official Secrets Act, Sedition Charges.   

Bird-Wing Solar Event

Source: HT

NASA has observed a massive solar eruption, named as the “Bird-Wing” event due to its bird wing-like plasma structure. Though it raised concerns of a severe geomagnetic storm, Earth escaped a direct hit, experiencing only minimal impact. 

Bird-Wing Solar Event 

• Origin: The eruption originated from the Sun’s northern hemisphere, with its plasma (eruption) structure extending over one million kilometres, i.e. more than twice the Earth-Moon distance. 
• Components Involved: 
  • The event involved both a Solar Flare and a Coronal Mass Ejection (CME). 
    • Solar Flares are sudden, intense bursts of electromagnetic radiation from the Sun’s surface caused by the snapping and realignment of magnetic field lines.  
      • They are classified from A to X based on X-ray brightness. 
      • They often occur alongside CMEs and travel at the speed of light and can reach Earth in about 8 minutes. 
    • Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) is an explosive ejection of charged solar plasma into space, travelling at speeds of 250 to 3000 km/s (slower than solar flares) and taking 1–3 days to reach Earth. 

 

• Impact on Earth: 
  • Solar flares can cause geomagnetic storms that disrupt Earth’s magnetic field, leading to radio blackouts, power grid failures, and visible auroras at lower latitudes.  
  • High-energy particles may damage satellites, GPS, and communication systems.  

Read More: Coronal Mass Ejections, Solar Flare