CEREBO: Indigenous Brain Diagnostic Tool

Source: TH

India has developed CEREBO, an indigenous, hand-held diagnostic device to detect traumatic brain injuries (TBIs), aiming to improve early detection and patient outcomes, particularly in rural and emergency settings.

Key Features of CEREBO:

• Technology: Developed by Indian Council of Medical Research, It uses advanced near-infrared spectroscopy combined with machine learning to detect intracranial bleeding and edema.
• Speed: Provides results within a minute, enabling rapid diagnosis in emergency situations.
• Safety: It is non-invasive and radiation-free, making it safe for infants, pregnant women, and repeated use.
• User-Friendly: Offers color-coded outputs for easy interpretation by healthcare personnel. 
  • It is portable and designed for ambulances, trauma centers, rural clinics, and disaster response units where access to CT (Computed Tomography) or MRI (Magnetic Resonance Imaging) scans is limited.
• Cost-Effective: Provides an affordable alternative to CT scans in resource-limited settings.
  • CEREBO complements but does not replace CT scans for deep tissue assessment.
• Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI): It is brain damage caused by an external force. Mild TBIs affect thinking, movement, or behavior temporarily, while severe TBIs can cause permanent disability or death. 

Read more: Brainoware

Collegium System of Judicial Appointments in India

Source: TH

Why in News?

The Supreme Court of India returned to its full sanctioned strength of 34 judges, with the appointment of two new judges recommended by the Collegium system.

What is the Collegium System?

• About:  It is India's judicial mechanism for appointing and transferring judges to the Supreme Court and High Courts. 
  • It is not a direct constitutional provision but evolved from landmark Supreme Court judgments, most notably the "Three Judges Cases".

Evolution of the Collegium System

• First Judges Case (1981): SC held that in the appointment of a judge of the SC or the HC, the word "consultation" in Article 124(2) and in Article 217 of the Constitution does not mean "concurrence".
  • It gave the executive primacy over the judiciary in judicial appointments.
• Second Judges Case (1993):  The SC overruled the First Judges Case and held that "consultation" in judicial appointments actually meant concurrence. 
  • The SC ruled that the CJI’s advice on appointing judges is binding on the President. Before giving this advice, the CJI must consult their two senior-most colleagues.
  • This judgment led to the creation of the Collegium System, giving primacy to the judiciary in the appointment of judges.
• Third Judges Case (1998): The SC expanded the Collegium to include the CJI and the 4 most senior judges of the court after the CJI.
• Collegium Composition:
  • SC Collegium: CJI  and four senior-most SC judges. 
  • HC Collegium: Chief Justice of the HC and two senior-most HC judges.
  • Government Role: Can raise objections, but if Collegium reiterates, appointments are binding.

Constitutional Basis for Appointment of Judges

• Article 124: SC judges appointed by the President in consultation with the Chief Justice of India (CJI) and other judges.
• Article 217: HC judges appointed by the President in consultation with CJI, Governor, and HC Chief Justice.
• Ad hoc Judges (Article 127): If quorum of SC judges is not available, CJI (with President’s consent) can request a HC judge to sit in SC.
• Acting CJI (Article 126): In case of vacancy/absence, senior most available SC judge appointed by the President.
• Retired Judges (Article 128): With President’s consent, CJI may request a retired SC judge to sit and act as SC judge for a specified period.
• Appointment Procedures:
  • CJI: Outgoing CJI recommends a successor, usually by seniority.
  • SC Judges: CJI initiates the recommendation, consulting Collegium members and the senior-most judge from the candidate’s High Court. Their opinions are recorded in writing. 
    • The Collegium’s recommendation is sent to the Law Minister, then the Prime Minister, who advises the President for the appointment.
  • HC Chief Justices/Judges: The Chief Justice of a High Court is appointed by the President in consultation with the CJI and the Governor of the State.
    • The procedure for appointing puisne Judges is the same except that the Chief Justice of the High Court concerned is also consulted.

What are the Arguments for and Against the Collegium System of Appointment?

Arguments for

• Separation of Powers: Keeps the judiciary independent from the executive and legislature. Judges can perform their duties without fear, influence, or interference, upholding the principle of separation of powers (Article 50).
• Preservation of Judicial Integrity Senior judges are best placed to assess the legal acumen, integrity, and suitability of potential judges.
  • Judges choosing judges preserves the dignity and autonomy of the judiciary as an institution.
  • The Collegium System reduces risks of corruption in appointments.

Arguments Against

• Lack of Transparency: The system operates largely in secrecy and lacks transparency, with no published procedure or objective criteria. It can encourage nepotism and favouritism (often called the “uncle judge syndrome”).’
• Misuse of Power: The collegium concentrates power within a few judges, raising concerns of unchecked authority in judicial appointments.
• Inequitable Representation of Communities: Data reveals significant skew in judicial appointments, with 79% of High Court judges (2018–2022) from upper-caste backgrounds, while marginalized communities remain underrepresented. 
  • Women make up only 4% of Supreme Court judges. Additionally, 331 judicial vacancies existed in High Courts in 2024, highlighting delays in appointments under the collegium system.
• National Judicial Appointments Commission (NJAC): It was a proposed constitutional body in India established by the 99th Constitutional Amendment Act, 2014, intended to replace the collegium system to create a more transparent process based on merit.
  • However, the Supreme Court, in Supreme Court Advocates-on-Record Association vs Union of India (commonly known as the Fourth Judges Case, 2015), struck down the 99th Constitutional Amendment and the NJAC, deeming them unconstitutional and a threat to judicial independence as they allowed greater executive involvement in judicial appointments.

Conclusion

The Collegium system, though criticized, remains a cornerstone of India’s judicial independence. It can be further strengthened by introducing checks and balances, greater transparency, and merit-based oversight, while remaining free from executive influence.

Drishti Mains Question:

Q. Judicial Appointments in India remain a contested arena between judicial independence and democratic accountability. Examine the evolution and challenges of the Collegium system.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

Prelims 

Q. Consider the following statements: (2019)

1. The 44th Amendment to the Constitution of India introduced an Article placing the election of the Prime Minister beyond judicial review. 
2. The Supreme Court of India struck down the 99th Amendment to the Constitution of India as being violative of the independence of judiciary. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

(a) 1 only 
(b) 2 only 
(c) Both 1 and 2 
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 

Ans: (b)

Mains 

Q. Critically examine the Supreme Court’s judgement on the ‘National Judicial Appointments Commission Act, 2014’ with reference to the appointment of judges of higher judiciary in India. (2017)

Coral Reefs as Indicators of Rising Sea Levels

For Prelims: Coral Reefs, Coral Bleaching, Marine Heatwaves, El Nino, Algal Bloom, Mangroves, Coral Mircoattols

For Mains: About Coral Reefs and Coral bleaching, Coral Micro-atolls as Natural Recorders of Sea Level Rise, Causes & Impact of Sea Level Rise, Way Forward

Source: TH

Why in News?

A study on coral microatolls in the Maldives shows that sea-level rise in the central Indian Ocean began earlier and progressed faster than previously thought, challenging the belief that significant rise started in the 1990s, with major implications for climate science and coastal policy.

How Coral Micro-atolls are the Natural Recorders of Sea Level Rise?

• Natural Recorders: Coral microatolls are disk-shaped coral colonies that stop growing upwards once constrained by the lowest tide levels. Their upper surface directly reflects long-term sea-level changes, making them natural recorders of past sea levels.
• Longevity and Accuracy: Coral microatolls can survive for decades or even centuries, providing high-resolution, continuous data on sea-level fluctuations.
  • The study conducted on the Mahutigalaa reef in the Huvadhoo Atoll of the Maldives studied a Porites microatoll to measure sea levels from 1930 to 2019.
• Acceleration of Sea-Level Rise in the Indian Ocean: The research shows that sea levels in the Indian Ocean have risen by approximately 0.3 meters over the last 90 years.
  • Rates of Rise:
    • 1930–1959: 1–1.84 mm/year
    • 1960–1992: 2.76–4.12 mm/year
    • 1990–2019: 3.91–4.87 mm/year
• Key Revelation: Sea-level rise in the region began much earlier than previously thought, starting in the late 1950s rather than around 1990 as assumed.
  • Over the last 50 years, Maldives, Lakshadweep, and Chagos have experienced a 30–40 cm increase in sea levels, increasing the risks of flooding and coastal erosion.
• Coral Growth: Coral micro-atolls are influenced by environmental factors like El Niño, the Indian Ocean Dipole (IOD), and the 18.6-year lunar cycle. 
  • These factors can affect the coral growth patterns, which, in turn, provide data on sea-level fluctuations.
  • By studying the growth bands in coral micro-atolls, scientists can reconstruct sea-level history, tracking past fluctuations and understanding the acceleration of sea-level rise in specific regions like the Maldives and Lakshadweep.

What is Sea-Level Rise (SLR) and Its Impact on Island Nations?

• About: Sea-Level Rise (SLR) refers to the gradual, long-term increase in ocean levels. 
  • While the global average rise is approximately 3.2 mm per year, the Indian Ocean is experiencing a faster rate at 3.3 mm per year, intensifying challenges such as coral bleaching in regions like the Maldives, Lakshadweep, and the Chagos Archipelago.
• Causes of Sea-Level Rise:
  • Melting of Glaciers and Ice Sheets:
    • The melting of glaciers and ice sheets adds significant amounts of freshwater to the oceans. Between 2005–2013, melting glaciers contributed nearly twice as much to sea-level rise as thermal expansion.
    • Specifically, Greenland's ice loss increased seven-fold and Antarctica's ice loss nearly quadrupled between 1992 and 2016.
  • Thermal Expansion of Seawater:
    • As the Earth's climate warms, seawater absorbs heat, causing it to expand and increase the overall volume of the oceans. This thermal expansion contributes significantly to sea-level rise.
  • Groundwater Depletion and Land Water Shifts:
    • Groundwater depletion, along with changes in aquifers, rivers, lakes, and soil moisture, results in additional water being transferred to the seas, further contributing to rising sea levels.
    • Since 1880, global sea levels have risen by approximately 21–24 cm, with the record high in 2023 being 101.4 mm above 1993 levels.
• Impact of SLR on Island Nations:
  • Loss of Land and Habitats: Rising seas inundate coastal areas, cause freshwater salinization, and destroy habitats. Eg: Maldives and Tuvalu face existential threats. Coral bleaching and mangrove loss further reduce natural defenses.
  • Water and Food Insecurity: Saltwater intrusion contaminates aquifers and damages agriculture, while coral reef degradation reduces fish stocks. Eg: Kiribati and Marshall Islands are facing severe drinking water shortages.
  • Extreme Climate Events: Intensified cyclones, hurricanes, and floods devastate infrastructure and economies. Eg: Hurricane Dorian (2019) caused USD 3 billion damage to the Bahamas.
  • Socio-Economic Disruptions: Beach erosion and reef destruction reduce tourism revenues, while storm damage diverts budgets from development. Eg: Barbados faces declining tourism. Entire communities may be displaced, creating climate refugees.
  • Health and Cultural Risks: Warmer temperatures spread vector-borne diseases (dengue, chikungunya), while forced migration leads to cultural erosion and identity loss.

Conclusion

Research on coral microatolls reveals that sea-level rise in the central Indian Ocean started earlier and accelerated faster than previously thought. For regions like the Maldives and Lakshadweep, this underscores the need for climate-resilient infrastructure, sustainable coastal policies, emission mitigation, and improved adaptation strategies based on refined sea-level projections.

Drishti Mains Question:

How can natural recorders like coral microatolls complement modern scientific tools in understanding climate change and sea-level rise?

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)  

Prelims

Q. Consider the following statements: (2018)

1. Most of the world’s coral reefs are in tropical waters.  
2. More than one-third of the world’s coral reefs are located in the territories of Australia, Indonesia and Philippines.  
3. Coral reefs host far more number of animal phyla than those hosted by tropical rainforests. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only  
(b) 3 only  
(c) 1 and 3 only  
(d) 1, 2 and 3 

Ans: (d)

---

Q. Which of the following have coral reefs? (2014)

1. Andaman and Nicobar Islands  
2. Gulf of Kachchh  
3. Gulf of Mannar  
4. Sunderbans  

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2 and 3 only  
(b) 2 and 4 only  
(c) 1 and 3 only  
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4  

Ans: (a)

---

Mains

Q. Assess the impact of global warming on the coral life system with examples. (2019)

Q. How are climate change and the sea level rise affecting the very existence of many island nations? Discuss with examples. (2025)

Decarbonising Key Sectors in India

Source: IE

A recent study by Centre for Social and Economic Progress (CSEP) and IMF estimates India needs USD 467 billion by 2030 to decarbonize its power, steel, cement, and road transport sectors, which contribute over 50% of CO2 emissions. 

Decarbonising Key Sectors

Sector	Additional Funding and Key Decarbonization Measures
Steel	USD 251 billion, Carbon Capture & Storage (CCS), shift to green hydrogen, energy efficiency
Cement	USD 141 billion, CCS, alternative fuels, clinker substitution.
Power (Electricity)	USD 47 billion, Renewable expansion (solar, wind), grid modernization.
Road Transport	USD 18 billion, Electric vehicles, biofuels, charging infrastructure.

Decarbonisation & India’s Target

• Decarbonisation: Systematic reduction of CO₂ emissions to mitigate global warming and achieve net-zero emissions.
  • Decarbonising steel, cement, and power sectors alone could mitigate about 6.9 billion tonnes of  CO₂ by 2030.
• India's Decarbonization Targets: At COP26 in Glasgow (2021), India presented its Panchamrit climate action plan, which includes five key targets:
  • Achieving 500 GW of non-fossil fuel energy capacity by 2030.
  • Meeting 50% of energy needs from renewables by 2030.
  • Reducing CO₂ emissions by 1 billion tons by 2030.
  • Cutting carbon intensity by 45% by 2030.
  • Targeting Net-Zero emissions by 2070.
• Progress:
  • Achieved its non-fossil fuel capacity target in 2024-five years ahead of schedule (2030), with 242.78 GW (around 50%) of its 484.82 GW total installed capacity from non-fossil sources. 
  • India pledged to create 2.5–3 billion tonnes of carbon sinks by 2030. By 2021, it had already achieved 2.29 billion tonnes.
  • India aimed for a 45% reduction in emissions intensity by 2030, and had already achieved 36% by 2020.

Read More: Decarbonising India’s Logistics Sector 

Vikram 32-bit Microprocessor and Semicon India 2025

Source:TH

At Semicon India 2025, the Prime Minister of India was presented with the Made-in-India Vikram 32-bit Launch Vehicle Grade microprocessor, marking a major milestone in semiconductor self-reliance.

VIKRAM3201

• VIKRAM3201 was developed by ISRO’s Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre and Semiconductor Laboratory (SCL), Chandigarh, along with KALPANA3201(32-bit microprocessor designed to work with open-source software tools.)
• It is an advanced version of the 16-bit VIKRAM1601, used in ISRO launch vehicle avionics since 2009. 
• It is designed for spaceflight applications, capable of withstanding extreme temperatures of -55°C to 125°C.
  • Initial validation in space of VIKRAM3201 achieved with SpaDeX Mission (PSLV-C60 mission), proving reliability for future space missions.
• It boasts a custom instruction set architecture that is tailored for the Ada programming language, which is widely used in safety-critical systems. It is also capable of handling complex tasks like floating-point computation.
• It enables Atmanirbharata in navigation, guidance, and control systems for launch vehicles.

Semicon India 2025

• Theme: “Building the Next Semiconductor Powerhouse.”
• The SEMICON India Programme, implemented through the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM), showcases India’s growing capabilities in chip design, packaging, and fabrication. 
• It also facilitates global collaborations, research commercialization, skill development, and strengthens India’s position in the global semiconductor value chain.

Read more: India’s Semiconductor Ambitions

• Semiconductor Revolution

Brain-Eating Amoeba

Source: DTE

Kerala has reported several cases of Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis (PAM), a brain infection caused by “brain-eating amoeba”.

Brain-Eating Amoeba

• About: PAM is a rare and often fatal brain infection caused by Naegleria fowleri amoeba or brain-eating amoeba, found in contaminated warm, freshwater sources like wells and ponds.
• Transmission: Naegleria fowleri enters the body through the nose during swimming or bathing in contaminated freshwater, travels to the brain, causing tissue destruction and swelling. 
  • It is not transmitted through drinking water or person-to-person.
• Symptoms: Early symptoms include headache, fever, nausea, vomiting, progressing to stiff neck, confusion, seizures, hallucinations, and coma. 
  • Mortality is extremely high (>95%), with most patients dying within 1–18 days, often within 5 days of onset.
• Treatment: No effective treatment available, currently combination of drugs including amphotericin B, azithromycin, fluconazole, and others are recommended to manage the infection.

Read More: Primary Amoebic Meningoencephalitis 

Bail Conditions in India

Source: IE

Why in News? 

The US President Donald Trump signed an executive order cutting federal funds to jurisdictions that allow cashless bail. The move has sparked renewed discussions on bail reforms in India.

• Cashless bail allows release in minor offences without monetary deposit, subject to conditions for court appearance, unlike traditional bail which requires cash or property surety.

What are the Bail Conditions in India?

• Bail in India: Bail is the conditional release of an accused before trial, based on the presumption of innocence. It ensures the person does not abscond, tamper with evidence, or influence witnesses.
  • Chapter 35 of the Bhartiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), 2023, which replaced the Code of Criminal Procedure (CrPC) 1973, lays down the bail process.
• Bond: A written promise by the accused to appear for trial and follow bail conditions. It usually requires a cash deposit (amount based on crime and economic condition).
  • Cash deposit can be forfeited if bail conditions are broken. It is refundable at the end of the trial, regardless of the outcome.
  • If the accused cannot pay immediately, the court may allow release on a Personal Recognisance (PR) Bond, with time given to arrange the cash.
• Bail Bond: A bail bond is a guarantee from a third party (family, friend, or employer) ensuring the accused complies with bail conditions and appears for trial. 
  • The surety may deposit a sum forfeitable if the accused absconds. Courts verify the surety’s documents, finances, and residence, with some requiring a solvency certificate.

What is the Need for Bail Reforms in India?

• Financial Inequality and Discrimination: Cash and surety-based bail disproportionately affects poor and marginalized groups. Many undertrials cannot arrange money, property, or local sureties, even for minor offences.
  • Law Commission (268th report) notes this violates constitutional principles of equality and fair trial.
  • Flawed assumptions that all accused have access to financial or social resources render the “bail, not jail” principle ineffective.
  • Weak Procedural Safeguards: Courts often fail to follow guidelines for timely bail or to record reasons for denial. Lack of standardized procedures creates arbitrariness in granting or denying bail.
• Delays in Judicial Processes: Backlog of cases and overburdened courts cause prolonged pre-trial detention. Delays result in undertrials being jailed longer than the potential sentence for their alleged offence.
  • Nearly 70% of India’s prison population are undertrials, many of whom remain incarcerated for months or years before trial.
• Constitutional and Human Rights Violation: Bail practices must align with Articles 21 (Right to Life and Liberty) and 14 (Equality before Law).
  • Excessive pre-trial detention violates the principle of presumption of innocence.

What Measures can Strengthen India’s Bail System?

• Timely Disposal of Bail Applications: Implement strict timelines for granting bail to prevent unnecessary pre-trial detention.
  • In the case of Satender Kumar Antil v. CBI (2022) SC emphasized that “bail not jail” should be the norm and highlighted the need for timely processing.
  • Incentivize non-custodial measures such as reporting conditions or monitoring mechanisms. It helps decongest prisons and prevents repeat criminalization.
• Financial Assistance for Underprivileged Accused: Expand schemes like Support to Poor Prisoners (2023) to provide funds for those unable to furnish bail.
  • Reduces disproportionate incarceration of the poor, aligning with Article 21.
• Expand Use of Personal Recognisance: Encourage PR bonds or non-monetary conditions for minor and non-violent offences. It ensures liberty without financial barriers while maintaining accountability.
• Strengthening Legal Aid and Procedural Safeguards: Streamlined bail processes can reduce overcrowding, uphold constitutional rights, and prevent the criminalization of poverty.
  • Deploy para-legal volunteers and lawyers to assist undertrials in navigating bail processes.
  • In Madhav Hayawadanrao Hoskot v. State of Maharashtra (1978), the SC held that the right to counsel is a fundamental right under Article 21. Providing legal aid is the State’s duty, not an act of charity.
• Digital and Administrative Reforms: Maintain centralized digital records of bail, sureties, and undertrials. Facilitate quick verification of bonds or sureties to avoid delays like those in Mumbai courts due to solvency certificates.

Drishti Mains Question:

Q.  “Bail, not jail”: Discuss the constitutional and human rights implications of India’s current bail system.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims

Q. With reference to India, consider the following statements: (2021) 

1. When a prisoner makes out a sufficient case, parole cannot be denied to such prisoner because it becomes a matter of his/her right. 
2. State Governments have their own Prisoners Release on Parole Rules. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

(a) 1 only  
(b) 2 only  
(c) Both 1 and 2 
(d) Neither I nor 2 

Ans: (b)