GST 2.0 with Next-generation Reforms

For Prelims: Goods and Services Tax (GST), Article 279A, value-added tax , 

For Mains: Evolution and significance of GST in India,  Growth & Development

Source:PIB

Why in News?

The 56th Goods and Services Tax (GST) Council, unveiled GST 2.0 with next-generation reforms to make the tax regime citizen-centric, boost agriculture, health, manufacturing, and improve ease of doing business.

• The changes in GST rates on services will be implemented with effect from 22nd September 2025.

What are the Key Tax Reforms Under GST 2.0?

• Simplified GST Structure: GST 2.0 replaces four GST slabs (5%, 12%, 18%, and 28%) with a two-slab system (5% (merit rate) for essential items and 18% (standard rate) for others), plus a 40% demerit rate for luxury, sin, and demerit goods like tobacco and pan masala.
• Tax Relief for the Essential Goods: Full GST exemption on individual life and health insurance policies. Essential goods such as Ultra-High Temperature (UHT) milk, paneer, and Indian breads now carry nil GST.
• Consumer Goods: GST on small cars, TVs, air conditioners, cement, and auto parts has been reduced from 28% to 18%. GST on renewable energy devices has been reduced from 12% to 5%. 
  • These cuts are expected to stimulate manufacturing, promote green energy adoption, and boost domestic demand.
• Medical and Health Devices: GST on 33 lifesaving drugs has been reduced from 12% to nil. GST on three critical drugs used for cancer and rare diseases has been reduced from 5% to nil, strengthening healthcare access.
• Support for Agriculture and Rural Sectors: Machinery like tractors, harvesters, and composters: GST reduced from 12% to 5%.
  • Fertilizer inputs such as sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and ammonia: GST reduced from 18% to 5%.
  • Labour-intensive goods like handicrafts, marble, and leather items: GST reduced from 12% to 5%.
• Trade Facilitation and Dispute Resolution: The Goods and Services Tax Appellate Tribunal (GSTAT) will be operational by December 2025. 
  • Process reforms for refunds and registration will improve dispute resolution, reduce litigation, and provide predictability for businesses, especially MSMEs.

What is the Goods and Services Tax (GST)?

• About: Introduced by the 101st Constitutional Amendment Act, 2017, is a comprehensive indirect tax levied on the supply of goods and services in India.
  • It is a value-added tax (VAT) that replaced multiple indirect taxes previously levied by the Centre and States.

• Key Features:
  • Dual GST Structure: Includes Central GST (CGST) and State GST (SGST); Integrated GST (IGST) is applicable for inter-state transactions.
  • GST Council: It is the primary body for GST policymaking and rate decisions.
    • The GST Council, established under Article 279A of the Constitution, is a joint forum of the Centre and States.
    • It is chaired by the Union Finance Minister, the Union Minister of State in charge of Revenue or Finance as a Member, and the Minister in charge of Finance, Taxation, or any other Minister nominated by each State Government as Members.
  • Goods and Services Tax Network (GSTN): help taxpayers in India to prepare, file returns, make payments of indirect tax liabilities and do other compliances.
  • Threshold Exemption: Small businesses with turnover below a certain limit are exempt from GST. This makes compliance easier and protects micro enterprises from excessive paperwork.
• Benefits of GST:
  • Destination-Based Tax: Collected where goods/services are consumed, benefiting businesses with better cash flow and working capital.
  • Ease of Doing Business: Technology-driven, minimal human interface, simplifies compliance, refunds, and registration.
  • Boost to Make in India: Makes domestic goods competitive nationally and internationally.
  • Exports: Supplies of goods or services, or both, to a Special Economic Zone (SEZ) are treated as zero-rated under GST, with quick refunds, thereby promoting international trade and improving the balance of payments.
  • Revenue & Compliance: Expands tax base, increases government revenue, improves transparency, and enhances GDP by 1.5–2%.
• Achievement of GST: In 2024–25, GST recorded its highest-ever gross collection of Rs 22.08 lakh crore, reflecting a year-on-year growth of 9.4 percent. The average monthly collection stood at Rs 1.84 lakh crore.

Drishti Mains Question:

Q. Examine the significance of GST in simplifying India’s indirect tax structure and improving ease of doing business.

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ)  

Prelims

Q. Consider the following items: (2018)  

1. Cereal grains hulled 
2. Chicken eggs cooked 
3. Fish processed and canned 
4. Newspapers containing advertising material 

Which of the above items is/are exempted under GST (Good and Services Tax)?  

(a) 1 only  
(b) 2 and 3 only  
(c) 1, 2 and 4 only  
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4  

Ans: (c)  

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Q. What is/are the most likely advantages of implementing ‘Goods and Services Tax (GST)’? (2017) 

1. It will replace multiple taxes collected by multiple authorities and will thus create a single market in India. 
2. It will drastically reduce the ‘Current Account Deficit’ of India and will enable it to increase its foreign exchange reserves. 
3. It will enormously increase the growth and size of the economy of India and will enable it to overtake China in the near future. 

Select the correct answer using the code given below:  

(a) 1 only   
(b) 2 and 3 only  
(c) 1 and 3 only   
(d) 1, 2 and 3  

Ans: (a) 

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Mains

Q. Explain the rationale behind the Goods and Services Tax (Compensation to States) Act of 2017. How has COVID-19 impacted the GST compensation fund and created new federal tensions? (2020)

Q. Enumerate the indirect taxes which have been subsumed in the Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India. Also, comment on the revenue implications of the GST introduced in India since July 2017. (2019)

Gig Workers: The Invisible Workforce

For Prelims: Gig and platform economy, World Economic Forum, e-Shram Portal.

For Mains: Role of Gig Economy in India’s Economic Growth, Key Issues Associated with the Gig Economy in India.

Source: TH

Why in News? 

India’s gig and platform economy is rapidly expanding, projected to grow from 1 crore workers in 2024–25 to 2.35 crore by 2029–30. While it offers flexibility and new opportunities, gig workers perform a significant amount of invisible labor, yet face low wages, job insecurity, and pressures from algorithm-driven management.

What is the Gig Economy? 

• About: The gig economy, as defined by the World Economic Forum (WEF), involves the exchange of labour for money between individuals or companies via digital platforms that actively connect providers with customers on a short-term and payment-by-task basis.
  • According to the Code on Social Security, 2020, a gig worker is “a person who performs work or participates in a work arrangement and earns from such activities outside the traditional employer-employee relationship.”
• Types of Gig Workers:
  • Platform-Based Workers: Work via digital apps or online platforms. Food delivery (Zomato, Swiggy), ridesharing (Ola, Uber), e-commerce delivery (Amazon, Dunzo).
  • Non-Platform Workers: Casual or self-employed workers in traditional sectors, part- or full-time. Examples include part-time tutors, freelance designers, self-employed domestic helpers, casual construction labor.
• Advantages of the Gig Economy:
  • For Workers: Flexible hours, multiple income streams, opportunity to work independently, skill development.
  • For Consumers: Faster services, convenience, competitive pricing, wider choices.
  • For Businesses/Platforms: Access to scalable workforce, lower overhead costs, ability to meet fluctuating demand efficiently.

What are the Growth Drivers of the Gig Economy?

• Expanding Digital Access: Under Digital India, internet connections in India rose from 25.15 crore in 2014 to 96.96 crore in 2024, with 85.5% of households owning a smartphone.This surge in digital access has fueled the growth of the gig economy by connecting workers and employers.
• E-Commerce and Startup Boom: The rise of online businesses and startups creates demand for gig workers in logistics, delivery, marketing, and content creation.
• Urban Demand for Convenience: Consumers increasingly expect fast services, fueling opportunities in food delivery, ridesharing, and customer support.
• Availability of Low-Cost Labor: Rising unemployment and a surplus of semi-skilled workers drive many to accept gig work as a source of income.
• Changing Work Preferences: Younger generations value flexibility, remote work, and project-based engagements, making gig roles more appealing.

What are the Challenges Facing the Gig Economy?

• Low Wages and Income Instability: Gig workers face low, unpredictable pay, earning per task rather than a fixed salary, often working long hours, and face pressure to meet targets that blur the line between “flexible” and full-time employment.
• Limited Legal and Social Protections: Minimal legal support and inadequate recognition in labour laws leave gig workers vulnerable. 
  • The Code on Social Security, 2020 acknowledges gig workers but fails to provide full labor rights, such as minimum wage guarantees and regulated working hours.  
  • Vulnerabilities are heightened during crises like heatwaves, illness, or accidents, with no formal safety net.
  • Gig workers are treated as “independent contractors,” not employees, leaving them without regulated hours, paid leave, despite often working full-time.
• Algorithmic Control and Surveillance: Digital platforms track workers’ location, monitor performance, and sometimes even require scanning of every product used during service.
  • Algorithms assign rigid schedules, penalise cancellations or delays, and can block worker accounts without human oversight. This creates constant pressure, forcing workers to comply or risk losing income.
• Lack of Social Security and Benefits: Gig workers are generally excluded from benefits such as health insurance, accident cover, maternity benefits, provident fund, and pensions.
  • Vulnerabilities are heightened during crises like heatwaves, illness, or accidents, with no formal safety net.
• Gender-Specific Vulnerabilities: Women, especially in roles like cleaning or beauty services, face harassment from customers and domestic violence at home.
  • Entering private homes for work increases exposure to unsafe conditions. Platforms’ rating and penalty systems often leave women vulnerable, with little legal recourse.
• Physical Strain: Gig work has no fixed hours; “flexibility” often means being on-call round-the-clock, leading to long hours, strict deadlines, and constant target pressure, causing physical and mental strain.

How Is India Addressing the Challenges of the Gig Economy?

• Code on Social Security, 2020: It legally defines gig and platform workers and provides them with social security benefits. The Code also has a provision to constitute a National Social Security Board to look after the welfare of gig and platform workers.
  • The RAISE Framework by NITI Aayog ensures gig and platform workers’ social security by focusing on Recognise work diversity, Augment financing, Incorporate platform and worker interests, Support awareness, and Ensure benefit access.
• e-Shram Portal: Launched in 2021, It builds a national database of unorganised and gig workers, providing them a Universal Account Number (UAN) and access to government welfare schemes. The portal aims to formalise the workforce and improve access to social security.
  • As of August 2025, more than 3.37 lakh platform and gig workers have registered on e-Shram Portal.
• State-Level Measures: Rajasthan’s Platform-Based Gig Workers Act (2023) requires employers to deposit a welfare cess. 
  • Karnataka proposed a Gig Workers’ Welfare Board (2024), and Telangana has drafted a bill for registration, social security, and welfare of gig workers.

What Measures can Strengthen India’s Gig Economy?

• Comprehensive Legal Framework: Clearly define rights and responsibilities of gig workers. Include minimum wages, regulated working hours, protection against unfair termination, and provisions for collective bargaining.
• Women-Centric Measures: Ensure women can avail maternity benefits under Code on Social Security, 2020.  Promote remote, and project-based roles to accommodate caregiving and household responsibilities.
  • Introduce panic buttons on apps, background verification of clients and delivery points, and dedicated helplines for women gig workers.
• Ensuring Algorithmic Fairness and Transparency: Regulate platform algorithms that determine task allocation, ratings, and penalties to prevent arbitrary income loss.
  • Mandate grievance redressal, human oversight, and appeal mechanisms for workers affected by automated decisions.
• Promoting Digital Literacy and Empowerment: Expand digital access in rural and semi-urban areas to enable participation in the gig economy.
  • Educate workers about rights, social security schemes, and safe platform practices to reduce dependence on opaque corporate policies.
• Incentivizing Platform Compliance: Link incentives like tax breaks, subsidies, or preferential government contracts to adherence to welfare laws and fair payment practices.
  • Encourage platforms to voluntarily comply and promote a sustainable gig ecosystem.
• Formalization via e-Shram Portal: Expand e-Shram portal integration to provide gig workers with digital identities and access to welfare schemes, employment insurance, and health coverage. 
  • Track gig workers formally to ensure inclusion in social security programs.

Conclusion

India’s gig and platform economy is rapidly reshaping the labour market with initiatives like the Code on Social Security (2020) and the e-Shram portal. Sustained support and effective policies are crucial to ensure gig workers can work with dignity, security, and fair opportunity.

Drishti Mains Question:

Q. Discuss the growth of India’s gig and platform economy and its implications for workers, consumers, and businesses.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims

Q. With reference to casual workers employed in India, consider the following statements:  (2021)  

1. All casual workers are entitled for Employees Provident Fund coverage. 
2. All casual workers are entitled for regular working hours and overtime payment. 
3. The government can by a notification specify that an establishment or industry shall pay wages only through its bank account. 

Which of the above statements are correct?  

(a) 1 and 2 only  
(b) 2 and 3 only  
(c) 1 and 3 only   
(d) 1, 2 and 3 

Ans: B 

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Mains 

Q. Examine the role of ‘Gig Economy’ in the process of empowerment of women in India. (2021)

Revised Norms of Green Credit Programme (GCP)

Source: TH

Why in News?

The MoEFCC has revised its Green Credit Programme (GCP) methodology for awarding green credits for tree plantation, now linking them to the survival and canopy cover of the trees, rather than just the number of trees planted.

What are the Key Highlights of the Revised Framework under the Green Credit Programme?

• Credits Awarded After 5 Years: Green credits are given only after 5 years if the restored land has more than 40% canopy cover, with 1 credit per surviving tree, focusing on real ecological improvement.
  • The 2024 notification grants credits based on the number of trees planted, while the 2025 notification requires evaluation of vegetation status and canopy density.
• Verification Process: Applicants submit claim reports with a verification fee. Designated agencies check tree survival and canopy before issuing credits, using third-party verification.
• Non-Transferable Credits: Credits are non-tradable/non-transferable, except between a company and its subsidiaries.
• They can be exchanged only once for Compensatory Afforestation (CA), CSR, or project-linked obligations; Once exchanged, credits cannot be reused.

What is the Green Credit Programme (GCP)?

• About: Green Credit Rules, 2023 provides for a market-based mechanism to promote voluntary plantation and create an inventory of degraded land for afforestation by individuals, communities, industries, and companies.
  • Notified under the Environment Protection Act, 1986, it awards credits for environmental actions to support compliance, CSR, and climate-positive initiatives.
• Key Objectives:
  • Develop a dynamic inventory of degraded forest lands through a web portal, accessible for plantation activities.
  • Encourage Govt. institutions, PSUs, NGOs, private companies, philanthropies, and individuals to adopt plantation blocks for afforestation.
  • Ensure transparent registration, verification, and monitoring via technology-enabled platforms and registries.
• Governance Structure: GCP is overseen by the Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education (ICFRE) and executed by State Forest Departments. 
  • After plantation, ICFRE reviews the site, and each surviving tree is counted as one Green Credit.
  • Credits can be used for compensatory afforestation or ESG/CSR obligations; 
  • A Green Credit Registry tracks credits, and a domestic platform manages their exchange.

Green Credit Vs Carbon Credit

Aspect	Green Credits	Carbon Credits
Focus	It is a unit of incentive awarded for an activity that positively impacts the environment. Governed by GCP, operating under The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.	Primarily reducing greenhouse gas emissions.  Carbon credits allow the holder to emit 1 ton of CO₂ (or equivalent GHGs) per credit. It is governed by the Energy Conservation Act, 2001 in India.
Eligibility	Open to individuals and communities.	Typically for entities reducing emissions or investing in projects
Incentives	Monetary rewards for eco-friendly actions	Revenue from international credit trading

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims

Q. The concept of carbon credit originated from which one of the following? (2009)

(a) Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro
(b) Kyoto Protocol
(c) Montreal Protocol
(d) G-8 Summit, Heiligendamm

Ans: (b)

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Q. Regarding “carbon credits”, which one of the following statements is not correct? (2011)

(a) The carbon credit system was ratified in conjunction with the Kyoto Protocol
(b) Carbon credits are awarded to countries or groups that have reduced greenhouse gases below their emission quota
(c) The goal of the carbon credit system is to limit the increase of carbon dioxide emission
(d) Carbon credits are traded at a price fixed from time to time by the United Nations Environment Programme.

Ans: (d)

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Mains

Q. Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997. (2022)

India’s Suspect Registry and Cybersecurity Initiatives

Source: IE

Why in News?

India’s online suspect registry has saved around Rs 5,100 crore by blocking 13 lakh fraudulent transactions, and it has quickly become a key tool in India’s fight against cybercrime.

What is a Suspect Registry?

• About: Launched in 2024, the suspect registry was created based on the National Cybercrime Reporting Portal (NCRP) and developed by the Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C). 
  • It contains data on 1.4 million cybercriminals linked to financial fraud and other cybercrimes, which has been shared with all banks.
  • The data has been shared with all banks and is accessible to States, UTs, and central investigation and intelligence agencies
• Objective: The registry helps banks and financial institutions verify customer credentials and monitor transactions to suspected accounts in real time. 
  • Using data from the NCRP, it strengthens fraud risk management and flags potential cybercriminals.
• Need for Suspect Registry: India loses over Rs 1,000 crore every month to cyber fraud. More than 80% of cybercrime cases involve financial fraud.
  • The rising scale of digital transactions demands stronger fraud risk management and real-time monitoring.
• Impact: As of December 2024, over 6.1 lakh fraudulent transactions worth around Rs 1,800 crore were blocked. 
  • Banks froze 8.67 lakh mule accounts, 7 lakh SIMs, and 1.4 lakh devices. Since 2021, around Rs 3,850 crore in frauds have been intercepted, and  suspicious online contents were blocked under the Information Technology Act, 2000.

Cybercrime Trends in India

• Rising Cybercrime Losses: According to the NCRP India witnessed a massive surge in cyber fraud, with total losses of around Rs 33,165 crore (2021-24).
• Emergence of Tier 2 & 3 Cybercrime Hotspots: Cities like Deoghar, Jaipur, Nuh, Mathura, Kolkata, Surat, Bengaluru Urban, and Kozhikode have been identified as hotspots, reflecting that cybercriminals are increasingly targeting smaller cities.

Click here to Read: Cyber Frauds

What are India's Cybersecurity Initiatives?

• Constitutional Context: Police and public order are state subjects. States/UTs handle crimes, including cybercrime, while the Centre provides guidance, coordination, and funding.
• Policy Mechanisms:
  • Information Technology Act, 2000: Covers cybercrime offences like phishing, smishing, and vishing with fines and imprisonment.
  • New Criminal Laws: Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), 2023, the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023, and the Bharatiya Sakshya Adhiniyam, 2023, address modern cyber threats.
  • National Cyber Security Policy, 2013: Aimed at protecting cyberspace, building cyber defense capabilities, reducing vulnerabilities, and strengthening national digital security.
• Institutional Mechanisms
  • Indian Cyber Crime Coordination Centre (I4C): Attached office under MHA for coordinated response to cybercrime.
    • The National Cyber Crime Reporting Portal (NCRP) under I4C enables the public to report all types of cybercrimes, with a major focus on crimes against women and children.
    • Cyber Fraud Mitigation Centre (CFMC) under I4C brings banks, financial intermediaries, telecom service providers, IT intermediaries and  law enforcement agencies (LEAs) under one roof for real-time action.
    • Samanvay Platform a web-based portal for cybercrime data, analytics, mapping, and coordination among Law Enforcement Agencies nationwide.
    • Citizen Financial Cyber Fraud Reporting and Management System (CFCFRMS) platform for immediate action on financial cyber fraud complaints via helpline 1930.
  • CERT-In (Indian Computer Emergency Response Team): National agency under IT Act, 2000 for handling cybersecurity incidents, vulnerabilities, and coordinated response.
    • CERT-In runs the National Cyber Coordination Centre (NCCC) for situational awareness of cyber threats and the Cyber Swachhta Kendra to detect and remove malware, offering free tools and cybersecurity guidance for citizens and organizations.
• International Cooperation: Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI) participates in Interpol-led cybercrime cooperation initiatives. 
  • The CBI is the nodal agency for G-7 24/7 network, which is a secure channel for making data preservation requests in cases related to cyber crime.
• Digital Mechanisms
  • ‘.bank.in’ Domain for Banks: Exclusive internet domain for Indian banks to reduce cyber fraud and strengthen digital trust.
  • e-Zero FIR: Converts cyber financial crime complaints above Rs 10 lakh into First Information Report (FIR) automatically.
  • MuleHunter.AI: AI tool developed by RBI to detect “mule accounts” used for transferring stolen funds.
  • ASTR: Developed by Department of Telecommunications (DoT) Artificial Intelligence and Facial Recognition powered Solution for Telecom SIM Subscriber Verification (ASTR) is used to identify suspected mobile connections taken by the same person in different names.

Drishti Mains Question:

Q. Discuss the institutional and digital mechanisms established by India to prevent and respond to cybercrime.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims

Q.1 In India, under cyber insurance for individuals, which of the following benefits are generally covered, in addition to payment for the loss of funds and other benefits? (2020) 

1. Cost of restoration of the computer system in case of malware disrupting access to one’s computer 
2. Cost of a new computer if some miscreant wilfully damages it, if proved so 
3. Cost of hiring a specialised consultant to minimise the loss in case of cyber extortion 
4. Cost of defence in the Court of Law if any third party files a suit 

Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

(a) 1, 2 and 4 only 
(b) 1, 3 and 4 only 
(c) 2 and 3 only 
(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 

Ans: (b)

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Q.2 In India, it is legally mandatory for which of the following to report on cyber security incidents? (2017) 

1. Service providers 
2. Data centres 
3. Body corporate 

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1 only 
(b) 1 and 2 only 
(c) 3 only 
(d) 1, 2 and 3 

Ans: (d)

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Mains

Q. What are the different elements of cyber security ? Keeping in view the challenges in cyber security, examine the extent to which India has successfully developed a comprehensive National Cyber Security Strategy. (2022)

BHARATI Initiative

Source: PIB

The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) has launched the BHARATI initiative to strengthen India’s agri-food exports and foster innovation among startups. 

BHARATI Initiative

• About: BHARATI (Bharat’s Hub for Agritech, Resilience, Advancement and Incubation for Export Enablement) aims to promote innovation, strengthen India’s agri-food startups, and boost exports.
• Objectives: To empower 100 agri-food startups through innovation and incubation, supporting APEDA's goal of USD 50 billion in agri-food exports by 2030.
  • Also aims to address challenges in perishability, quality, logistics, and sustainability.
• Key Features:
  • Targets high-value agri-food products such as GI-tagged, organic, superfoods, processed foods, livestock, AYUSH products. 
  • It will also promote advanced technologies like AI, blockchain, IoT, and agri-fintech, addressing packaging, perishability, sustainability, and logistics.
  • Connects startups and innovators to provide export-ready solutions by helping them meet international food safety and quality standards through a 3-month acceleration programme.
  • It also aligns with Atmanirbhar Bharat, Vocal for Local, Digital India, and Start-Up India programme.
  • APEDA partners with state boards, universities, IITs/NITs, industry bodies, and accelerators to strengthen the ecosystem and enable annual scalability.

APEDA

• APEDA, established under the APEDA Act, 1985, is a statutory body under the Ministry of Commerce & Industry.
• It promotes and develops exports of agricultural products, providing support in marketing, transportation, and value addition.

Read More: APEDA & TRIFED 

Fireflies as Ecological Indicators

Source: IE

A Tamil Nadu Forest Department study in the Anamalai Tiger Reserve (ATR)  identified eight firefly species and their population dynamics, emphasizing their role as ecological indicators.

Fireflies (Lampyridae)

• Classification & Habitat: Bioluminescent beetles, also known as lightning bugs or fireflies, are crucial for environmental balance. 
  • Found in diverse habitats, including tropical forests and temperate grasslands, they belong to the Lampyridae family.
  • They thrive in undisturbed soils, high humidity, clean water, and low artificial light.
• Morphology: Seasonal, active during or after rains, otherwise remain as larvae in soil and they live around 2 months.
• Ecological Significance:
  • Bioluminescent beetles produce cold, efficient light in abdominal organs through a biochemical reaction involving luciferin, luciferase, oxygen, and ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate), with light colors ranging from green to yellow. 
    • This bioluminescence plays key roles in mating signal and predator deterrence.
  • Large-scale synchronous flashing of fireflies are bioindicators of pollution-free areas, with population changes signaling environmental disruptions.
  • Which can impact other species like moths, bats, and amphibians.
• Threats: Threats like urbanization, deforestation, pesticides, and light pollution are linked to their declining populations.

Anamalai Tiger Reserve (ATR)

• Declared a Tiger Reserve in 2007, it is surrounded by Parambikulum Tiger Reserve(PTR), Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary and Eravikulum National Park.
• Kariyan Shola, Grass Hills, and Manjampatti of ATR is recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 
• It hosts evergreen, deciduous, and shola forests, montane and marshy grasslands, and key fauna like tiger, Asiatic elephant, sambar, leopard, and others.

Read More: Firefly for Great Indian Bustard 

IgM: The Largest Human Antibody

Source: BS

A study has discovered that IgM, the largest antibody in the human body, does not kill bacteria but instead neutralizes their toxins by stiffening them. 

• This new finding could lead to the development of next-generation therapies for tough bacterial infections.

Immunoglobulin M (IgM)

• About: IgM is the first antibody produced during infection, crucial for early defense. 
  • Pentameric (five antibody units joined) in structure, it has high binding capacity and is effective in neutralization, complement activation, and agglutination, despite limited tissue penetration.
  • Immunoglobulins (antibodies) are glycoproteins produced by white blood cells (B-lymphocytes and plasma cells), which recognize and neutralize pathogens like bacteria, viruses, and toxins.
• Mechanism: IgM acts as a mechanical brace for bacterial toxins. 
  • The study finds Protein L from the bacterium Finegoldia magna, which disrupts the immune system. 
    • Using single-molecule force spectroscopy, the researchers found that when IgM binds to Protein L, it makes the toxin much more resistant to breaking apart.
  • Its large size and multiple binding sites allow IgM to engage several points on the toxin simultaneously, stabilizing it, a feature absent in smaller antibodies. 
    • The effect is concentration-dependent, with higher IgM levels providing stronger protection.
• Significance: This discovery redefines antibodies as mechanical modulators, not just chemical binders, and opens avenues for IgM-based therapies to complement antibiotics, especially against resistant infections.

Read More: TR1 Cells Lead the Fight Against Malaria