Industrial Alcohol Regulation

For Prelims: Supreme Court, Chief Justice of India, Excise Duty, Goods and Services Tax (GST), Seventh Schedule

For Mains: Issues Arising Out of Design & Implementation of Policies, Role of excise duty in state revenue generation and its impact

Source: IE

Why in News?

The Supreme Court, led by the Chief Justice of India (CJI), is currently hearing a case with a 9-judge Constitution Bench. The case pertains to the question of whether states have the authority to regulate and impose excise duty on industrial alcohol.

Note

• Industrial alcohol, unlike alcoholic beverages, is not meant for human consumption (denatured). It finds applications in various sectors, including manufacturing pharmaceuticals, disinfectants, chemicals, and even biofuels.

What is the Constitutional Debate Regarding Industrial Alcohol?

• Constitutional Framework:
  • State List (Entry 8): Entry 8 in the State List under the Seventh Schedule of the Indian Constitution pertains to the power of state governments to legislate on the production, manufacture, possession, transport, purchase, and sale of intoxicating liquors.
  • Union List (Entry 52): Confers upon Parliament the authority to legislate on industries deemed expedient in the public interest.
  • Concurrent List (Entry 33): Allows both states and the Centre to legislate on industries, with the caveat that state laws cannot contradict central laws.
  • Industrial alcohol falls under the Industries (Development and Regulation) Act, 1951 (IDRA), which lists it as a subject of regulation. This act of Parliament provides the central government with the power to regulate industrial alcohol.
• Key Issue:
  • The central question is whether states have the autonomy to regulate industrial alcohol or if exclusive control lies with the Centre.
• Legal Interpretation:
  • Subjects in the Concurrent List can be regulated by both states and the Centre, but state laws cannot conflict with central legislation.
    • The IDRA, 1951, which lists industrial alcohol, implies central control over the subject matter.

What are the Arguments of the States?

• Interpretation of Entry 8:
  • It is argued that the phrase "intoxicating liquors" in Entry 8 of the State List encompasses all liquids containing alcohol.
    • Emphasis is placed on the historical usage of terms such as 'liquor', 'spirit', and 'intoxicant' in pre-constitutional excise laws.
• Scope of Union's Power:
  • The contention is made that Entry 52 of the Union List does not extend to the regulation of "finished products" like industrial alcohol post-denaturation.
    • It is asserted that such control falls under Entry 33 of the Concurrent List. To exercise exclusive authority over industrial alcohol regulation, the Centre would need to issue an order under Section 18-G of the IDRA. Without such an order, states retain jurisdiction.
    • The term ‘denatured alcohol’ refers to alcohol products adulterated with toxic and/or bad tasting additives (e.g., methanol, benzene, pyridine, castor oil, gasoline and acetone), making it unsuitable for human consumption.
• Preservation of States' Powers:
  • Caution is expressed against diminishing states' authority. Citing the ITC Ltd v Agricultural Produce Market Committee Case, 2002, which emphasises states are not subordinate to the Centre.
    • It stresses the need to uphold states' constitutional powers and avoid interpretations that weaken their autonomy.

What are the Other Similar Cases?

• Synthetics & Chemicals Ltd v. State of Uttar Pradesh Case, 1989:
  • A 7-judge Constitution Bench held that states’ powers, as per Entry 8 of the State List, were limited to regulating “intoxicating liquors” which are different from industrial alcohol.
    • Essentially, the SC said that only the Centre can impose levies or taxes on industrial alcohol, which is not meant for human consumption.
  • The SC failed to consider its own prior Constitution Bench decision in Ch Tika Ramji v State of UP Case, 1956.
• Ch Tika Ramji v State of UP Case, 1956:
  • The SC upheld Uttar Pradesh's legislation regulating the sugarcane industry against a challenge claiming exclusive central jurisdiction under Section 18-G of the Industries (Development and Regulation) Act, 1951 (IDRA).
    • The ruling affirmed states' authority to legislate in industries even in the presence of central laws, setting a crucial precedent for federal governance.

What is Excise Duty?

• Excise duty is an indirect tax imposed on goods for their production, licensing, and sale. It is paid to the Government of India by producers of goods and applies to domestically manufactured goods, unlike Customs duty which is levied on goods coming from outside the country.
  • Previously, excise duty at the central level was levied as Central Excise Duty, Additional Excise Duty, etc. However, the introduction of Goods and Services Tax (GST) in July 2017 combined many types of excise duty. Currently, excise duty is only applicable to petroleum and liquor.
    • Excise duty was imposed on manufactured goods at the time of their removal, while GST was imposed on the supply of goods and services.
• Excise duty levied on alcohol is a key component of a state’s revenue, with states often adding excise duty on alcohol consumption to drive its income up.
  • For example, in 2023, Karnataka hiked the Additional Excise Duty (AED) on Indian Made Liquor (IML) by 20%.

Feature	Absolute Alcohol	Denatured Alcohol
Composition	Pure ethanol (C₂H₅OH) with minimal or no additives/denaturants	Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) with a high concentration of additives/denaturants
Safety	Drinkable but should be consumed with extreme caution	Poisonous and unfit for consumption
Additives	May contain trace amounts of impurities	Contains high amounts of additives like methanol, which make it toxic.
Applications	Laboratory use (e.g., disinfecting surfaces, extracting chemicals), medical applications (e.g., sterilising instruments)	Industrial use (e.g., fuel, cleaning solvents), cannot be used in medical or laboratory settings due to toxicity
Smell & Taste	Characteristic alcoholic odour, slightly sweet taste	Foul odour, bitter taste
Taxation	May be subject to higher taxes due to its purity	Lower tax rate or tax-exempt due to its unsuitability for drinking

Drishti Mains Question:

Q. Discuss the significance of the ongoing Supreme Court case regarding the authority of states to regulate and impose excise duty on industrial alcohol. How might the outcome impact state-federal relations and the economy?

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Mains

Q. Enumerate the indirect taxes which have been subsumed in the Goods and Services Tax (GST) in India. Also, comment on the revenue implications of the GST introduced in India since July 2017. (2019)

Q. Explain the salient features of the Constitution (One Hundred and First Amendment) Act, 2016. Do you think it is efficacious enough “to remove cascading effect of taxes and provide for common national market for goods and services”? (2017)

Authority of High Court Benches

For Prelims: Public Interest Litigation, High Court, Benches of Court

For Mains: Public Interest Litigation, Jurisdiction of High Court

Source: TH

Why in News?

Recently, the Madras High Court (principal seat) has reinstated the Madurai Bench's authority to adjudicate on all types of public interest Litigation (PIL), including those involving matters concerning the entire State, rather than just the 13 districts within its territorial jurisdiction.

Note

The Madras High Court's principal bench in Chennai has a permanent bench in Madurai, which exercises jurisdiction in all matters except original jurisdiction, mirroring the principal bench.

What is the Ruling of the Madras Court?

• Issue:
  • A judgement passed by the former Chief Justice of the Madras High Court had emphasised the need to file PILs regarding temple interests statewide at the principal seat of the court, rather than the Madurai Bench, focusing on district-specific cases.
• Judgement:
  • However, in the recent judgement, the rights of the Madurai Bench of Madras High Court have been restored to hear all kinds of PILs including those that concern issues related to the entire State, and not just the 13 districts under its territorial jurisdiction.
    • The court stated that while the Chief Justice can transfer a case from principal bench to the permanent bench if necessary, a blanket order requiring all pan-state matters to be filed only at the principal seat would not be suitable for the Madurai Bench's functioning.
• Legal Basis of Judgement:
  • The court relied on the presidential notification issued in 2004 for the constitution of the Madurai Bench that had not imposed any such restriction.
  • The court also noted that a full Bench ruling in B. Stalin versus Registrar, 2012 clarified that there were no restrictions on the types of PILs that could be filed and heard at the Madurai Bench, although it affirmed the Chief Justice's authority to transfer cases between the principal seat and the Madurai Bench.

What is the Process of Establishment of High Court and Permanent Benches?

• Establishment of High Court Benches:
  • Article 214 of the constitution of India provides that there shall be a High Court for each state.
  • However, Section 51 of the States' Reorganisation Act, 1956 provide for setting up benches away from the principal seat.
• Justice Jaswant Singh Commission:
  • In 1981, a commission was appointed to consider demands for High Court Benches in Western districts of Uttar Pradesh.
  • Terms of reference were later expanded in 1983 to examine the general question of establishing Benches of High Courts at places other than their principal seats.
  • Recommendations:
    • The commission recommended criteria including characteristics of the region, population size, area, means of travel and communication, distance for litigants, pendency rates, infrastructure availability, and legal talent.
• Supreme Court's Position:
  • In a writ petition, the Supreme Court examined the demand for establishing High Court Benches at centres other than the principal seat, emphasising that decisions should be based on rational, not emotional, sentimental, or parochial considerations.
    • The consensus among the State Government, the Chief Justice of the concerned High Court, and the Governor is necessary for setting up Benches.
• Role of Union Government:
  • The government considers proposals for setting up benches only after receiving a complete proposal from the State Government, with the consent of the Chief Justice and the Governor.
  • The State Government is responsible for providing infrastructural facilities and bearing the entire expenditure of the High Court and its Bench.
  • The Chief Justice manages the day-to-day administration of the High Court and its Bench, deputing Judges from the Principal Seat to the Bench as needed.
  • A consultative approach requiring consensus among the State Government and the High Court is adopted for deciding on setting up Benches.

What is Public Interest Litigation?

• The concept of Public Interest Litigation (PIL) originated and developed in the USA in the 1960s.
• In India, the PIL is a product of judicial activism. Justice V.R. Krishna Iyer and Justice P.N. Bhagwati were the pioneers of the concept of PIL.
• The introduction of PIL in India was facilitated by the relaxation of the traditional rule of ‘locus standi’. According to this rule, only that person whose rights are infringed alone can move the court for the remedies, whereas, the PIL is an exception to this traditional rule.
• The Supreme Court has defined the PIL as “a legal action initiated in a court of law for the enforcement of public interest or general interest in which the public or a class of the community have pecuniary interest or some interest by which their legal rights or liabilities are affected.
• Public interest litigation is not defined in any statute or in any act. It has been interpreted by judges to consider the intent of the public at large.
• Some of the matters that are entertained under PIL are:
  • Bonded Labour matters
  • Neglected Children
  • Non-payment of minimum wages to workers and exploitation of casual workers
  • Atrocities on women
  • Environmental pollution and disturbance of ecological balance.

Drishti Mains Questions:

Q. Analyse the role and significance of Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in India's judicial system. How has PIL evolved over the years, and what impact has it had on governance and social justice?

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims

Q. Which one of the following statements is correct? (2013)

(a) In India, the same person cannot be appointed as Governor for two or more States at the same time

(b) The Judges of the High Court of the States in India are appointed by the Governor of the State just as the Judges of the Supreme Court are appointed by the President

(c) No procedure has been laid down in the Constitution of India for the removal of a Governor from his/her post

(d) In the case of a Union Territory having a legislative setup, the Chief Minister is appointed by the Lt. Governor on the basis of majority support

Ans: ( c)

Q. With reference to the Indian judiciary, consider the following statements: (2021)

1. Any retired judge of the Supreme Court of India can be called back to sit and act as a Supreme Court judge by the Chief Justice of India with the prior permission of the President of India.
2. A High Court in India has the power to review its own judgment as the Supreme Court does.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only 
(b) 2 only
(c) Both 1 and 2
(d) Neither I nor 2

Ans: (a)

Preventive Detention

For Prelims: Supreme Court, Preventive detention, Article 22, High Court judges, Punitive detention, Public Order, Law and Order, Ram Manohar Lohia vs State of Bihar (1965)

For Mains: Preventive detection and its significance in maintaining law and order.

Source: TH

Why in News?

Recently, the Supreme Court has held that advisory boards under preventive detention laws should not behave like mere “rubber-stamping authorities” for the government,

• They should act as safety valves that stand between the capricious use of power by the state and the right to personal liberty.

What is Preventive Detention?

• Background:
  • Laws authorising preventive detention existed in British colonial rule in India since 1818.
  • The Defence of India Act of 1915 was passed on the outbreak of the First World War, and the same was repeated in connection with emergency regulations made during the Second World War.
    • Both have provisions of preventive detention i.e., detention of a person without trial and conviction.
• About:
  • Preventive detention means the detention of a person without trial and conviction by a court. Its purpose is not to punish a person for a past offence but to prevent him from committing an offence in the near future.
  • The detention of a person cannot exceed three months unless an advisory board reports sufficient cause for extended detention.
  • Grounds for Preventive Detention:
    • State security
    • Public order
    • Foreign Affairs, etc.
• Two Types of Detentions:
  • Preventive detention is when a person is held in police custody only on the basis of a suspicion that they would conduct a criminal act or cause harm to society.
    • The police have the authority to hold anyone they suspect of committing a criminal offence and also to make arrests without a warrant or a magistrate’s authorisation in certain cases.
  • Punitive detention which means detention as a punishment for a criminal offence. It occurs after an offence is actually committed, or an attempt has been made towards the commission of that crime.
• Protection:
  • Article 22 grants protection to persons who are arrested or detained.
    • It has two parts—the first part deals with the cases of ordinary law and the second part deals with the cases of preventive detention law.
    • The article makes it mandatory for preventive detention laws to form advisory boards consisting of persons qualified to be High Court judges.
    • Under different laws, review boards must assess detention orders every three months to determine if there's enough reason for preventive detention. They examine evidence, request more information if needed, listen to the person detained, and then report if the detention was justified or not.
  • Safeguards Available to the Detained Person:
    • A person may be taken to preventive custody only for 3 months.
      • The period of detention may be extended beyond 3 months, only after approval by the Advisory Board.
    • The detainee has the right to know the grounds of his/her detention.
      • However, the state may refuse to tell the grounds if it is necessary to do so in the public interest.
    • The detainee is provided an opportunity to challenge his/her detention.
• The Relative Preventive Laws:
  • Public Safety Act (PSA).
  • Narcotic Drug and Psychotropic Substance Act (NDPS),1985.
  • National Security Act: The NCRB data showed that the number of people arrested under the National Security Act (NSA) had dipped significantly compared to 2020.
    • Preventive detentions under the NSA peaked in 2020 at 741. This number dropped to 483 in 2021.
• Issues Relate to Preventive Detention:
  • Dent to Democracy: No democratic country in the world has made preventive detention as an integral part of the Constitution as has been done in India.
  • Extra Juducual Authority: Governments occasionally leverage such laws to exert extrajudicial authority, raising concerns about arbitrary detentions.
  • Misuse of other Acts: There are several laws like the Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967 which have potential to be misued for preventive detentions.
  • Manipulation by Government Officials: District magistrates and the police also often make preventive detentions to control law and order in emerging communal clashes or clashes between any two communities, even when it might not always lead to public disorder.

Supreme Court on Preventive Detention:

• Ameena Begum Case, 2023: The Supreme Court held that preventive detention is an exceptional measure meant for emergency situations and should not be used routinely.
  • The objective of preventive detention is not to punish but to prevent anything prejudicial to the security of the state.
• Ankul Chandra Pradhan Case, 1997: This case emphasised that the purpose of preventive detention is to prevent harm to the security of the state, rather than to impose punishment.

What is Public Order and Law & Order?

• About:
  • Public order refers to the maintenance of peace, stability, and harmony within society, ensuring that activities and behaviours do not disrupt the overall well-being or safety of the community.
  • Public order is also one of the grounds for restricting free speech and other fundamental rights.
• Power to Maintain Public Order:
  • Under Entry 9 of List I (Union List), the Constitution of India provides the Parliament with the exclusive power to enact a law for preventive detention for the reasons connected with defence, foreign affairs, or security of India.
  • Under Entry 3 of List III (Concurrent List), both Parliament and State Legislature have powers to enact such laws for the reasons related to the maintenance of public order or the maintenance of supplies or services essential to the community.
  • According to State List (List 2) of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution, the power to legislate on aspects of public order rests with the states.
• Distinction Between Public Order and Law & Order:
  • The Supreme Court distinguished between ‘public order’ and ‘law and order’.
  • In Ram Manohar Lohia vs State of Bihar Case, 1965, the Supreme Court held that the problem of ‘law and order’ affected only a few individuals, but an issue of public order influenced the community or the public at large or even the country.
    • The difference between 'law and order' and 'public order' lies in the degree and extent of their scope.
  • The SC clarified that to bring the activities of a person within the expression of “acting in any manner prejudicial to the maintenance of public order” the activities must be of such a nature that the ordinary laws cannot deal with them or prevent subversive activities affecting society.

Way Forward

• National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (NCRWC): Submitted its report in 2002 after reviewing the Preventive Detention Provisions provided two recommendations:
  • The maximum period for detention under Article 22 should be six months
  • The composition of the advisory board should consist of a chairman and two other members who should be serving judges of a High Court.
• Supreme Court’s View: In July 2022, while setting aside the preventive detention order issued for a chain-snatcher in Telangana, observed that these powers accorded to the State were “exceptional” and that since they affect the liberty of an individual, they should be used sparingly.
  • The court had also noted that these powers should not be used to control ordinary law and order problems.

Drishti Mains Question

Q. Discuss the Preventive Detention and its effectiveness in maintaining public order and national security.

Legal Insight: Legality Of Preventive Detention

https://www.drishtijudiciary.com/en

Onion Export Ban & Associated Challenges

For Prelims: Onion, Export Policy of India, Horticulture, Bodies related to Agriculture

For Mains: Export Policy of India, India-UAE Relations, Agricultural Reforms, Supply Chain Management

Source: TH

Why in News?

Recently, the Indian government allowed some onion exports to the UAE despite an ongoing export ban, aiming to reduce domestic surplus.

• However, critics allege the selling price in the UAE market is significantly lower than global prices, reducing their profits and raising concerns about unfair practices.

What is the Current Issue Related to the Export of Onion?

• Background: In December, 2023 the Indian government banned onion exports to prevent a domestic shortage, but allowed exports to specific countries, such as the UAE, upon diplomatic requests.
  • However, the shipments of onions to the UAE have resulted in a considerable price gap, with Indian farmers receiving low prices compared to the much higher prices in UAE markets.
    • Example, recently onion prices in major markets like the UAE have surged to as high as $1500 per tonne, while India's recent shipments to the UAE were sent at around $500 to $550 per tonne.
• Concerns Raised by Exporters:
  • Lack of Transparency: The process of determining export prices and selecting exporters and importers lacks transparency, leading to concerns among farmers and exporters.
    • Exporters allege that some importers in the UAE have made windfall profits at the expense of Indian farmers.
    • The exports are being managed by the National Cooperative Exports Limited (NCEL), a government-owned body in India.
      • Importers in the UAE receiving these shipments are private traders and supermarket chains, not government agencies focused on food security.
  • Violation of Trade Norms: As per trade norms, local onion suppliers bid for the lowest possible price, while buyers are selected based on the highest price offered.
    • However, exporters argue that this practice is not being followed in the case of the UAE.
• Concerns Raised by the Onion Farmers:
  • Absence of MSP: Onion farmers receive no benefits from government Minimum Support Price(MSP)-based procurement and are solely reliant on market forces.
  • Price Disparity: Farmers are paid very low prices for their onions compared to the prices at which these onions are sold in international markets, leading to significant losses for the farmers.
    • Unseasonal heavy rains in March and April 2023 damaged a significant portion of harvested onions, making them less suitable for storage, leading farmers to engage in distressed sales of onions prone to rapid quality deterioration.
  • Export Bans: Frequent bans on onion exports by the government due to domestic shortages can disrupt the market and affect farmers' income.
    • Most rabi onion farmers store their crops after harvesting to prevent moisture and sprouting, selling them gradually from September to October before the next kharif crop.
    • Higher realisations in the off-season help them recoup their losses from the earlier low-price sales. But steps like the export ban dampen their hope of making their due profits.
    • Furthermore, export bans on staples like rice, wheat, or onions could damage India's reputation as a dependable global food source, making its restoration challenging.

What are the Steps Needed to Address the Issues of Onion Farmers in India?

• Fair Price Mechanism: Implement a fair and transparent pricing mechanism that ensures farmers receive reasonable prices for their onions.
• Export Policy Review: There is a time for India to review and revise export policies in line with the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade to ensure they do not negatively impact farmers, and promote fair trade practices.
• Market Reforms: Introduce reforms in the agricultural marketing system to reduce dependency on middlemen and ensure farmers get fair prices for their produce.
• Export Price Monitoring: Monitor export prices closely to ensure they are in line with international market prices and do not disadvantage domestic farmers.
• Solar-powered Dehydration Units: Deploying mobile, solar-powered dehydration units at village levels can empower farmers to dehydrate excess onions during surplus.
  • This extends shelf life, minimises spoilage, and creates a readily exportable product.

What are the International Treaties/Policies Related to Import and Export of Agricultural Products?

• WTO Agreement on Agriculture: This agreement, resulting from the Uruguay Round negotiations, aims to reform trade in the sector and to make policies more market-oriented.
  • This includes commitments to reduce subsidies, lower trade barriers, and make trade more predictable and transparent. India is a party to the WTO Agreement on Agriculture (AoA).
• Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures: These are measures to protect human, animal, or plant life or health from risks arising from the introduction of pests and diseases, or from additives, contaminants, toxins, or disease-causing organisms in food, beverages, or feedstuffs.
  • India is a party to it.
• International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC): This treaty protects the world’s plant resources from the spread and introduction of pests and promotes safe trade.
  • India is a party to the International Plant Protection Convention

What are the Key Facts About Onion?

• About: The onion is an herb that belongs to the lily family. It is an important horticultural commodity grown worldwide for their culinary purposes and medicinal values.
• Major Producer: India is the world's second-largest onion producer.
  • Maharashtra, Karnataka, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, and Tamil Nadu are the major onion-producing states.
  • Maharashtra ranks first in Onion production with a share of 42.53% followed by Madhya Pradesh with a share of 15.16% in 2021-22 (3rd Advance Estimate).
• Export Destination: Major export destinations of Indian onion include Bangladesh, Malaysia, United Arab Emirates, Sri Lanka and Nepal.

Drishti Mains Question:

Q. Critically analyse India's agricultural export policy considering recent export ban on certain agricultural products.

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims:

Q. With reference to the provisions made under the National Food Security Act, 2013, consider the following statements: (2018) 

1. The families coming under the category of ‘below poverty line (BPL)’ only are eligible to receive subsidised food grains
2. The eldest woman in a household, of age 18 years or above, shall be the head of the household for the purpose of issuance of a ration card. 
3. Pregnant women and lactating mothers are entitled to a ‘take-home ration’ of 1600 calories per day during pregnancy and for six months thereafter.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

(a) 1 and 2 only 
(b) 2 only  
(c) 1 and 3 only  
(d) 3 only 

Ans: (b) 

---

Mains:

Q. Hunger and Poverty are the biggest challenges for good governance in India still today. Evaluate how far successive governments have progressed in dealing with these humongous problems. Suggest measures for improvement. (2017)

Q. What are the reformative steps taken by the Government to make the food grain distribution system more effective? (2019)

Total Solar Eclipse

Source: IE

Why in News?

Recently, a total solar eclipse will cross North America, passing over Mexico, the United States, and Canada.

• Royal Museums Greenwich suggests that after a place on Earth experiences a total solar eclipse, it will take about 400 years before that spot sees another one.

What is a Solar Eclipse?

• About
  • A solar eclipse takes place when the Moon moves in the middle of Earth and the Sun.
  • The Moon blocks the light of the Sun, either fully or partially, which casts a huge shadow on some parts of the world. The areas in the centre of the Moon’s shadow at the time witnessed a total solar eclipse.
  • The sky darkens and people who are in the path of a total solar eclipse can get a glimpse of the Sun’s corona.
• Types of Solar Eclipse:
  • There are four different types of solar eclipses, including total solar eclipse, annual solar eclipse, partial solar eclipse, and hybrid solar eclipse.
    • Total Solar Eclipse:
      • A total solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes directly between the Earth and the Sun, blocking out the Sun's entire disk from view.
      • This creates a temporary darkness known as totality in the areas where the eclipse is visible.
      • During a total solar eclipse, the Sun's corona, or outer atmosphere, becomes visible, along with bright stars and planets in the sky.
        • It is a rare and often highly anticipated event.
    • Annual Solar Eclipse:
      • An annual solar eclipse, also known as an annular eclipse, happens when the Moon passes directly between the Earth and the Sun but does not completely cover the Sun's disk.
      • Instead, a ring of sunlight remains visible around the edges of the Moon, creating a "ring of fire" effect.
      • Unlike a total solar eclipse, the Sun is not completely obscured during an annular eclipse.
      • These events occur when the Moon is near its farthest point from Earth in its elliptical orbit, causing it to appear smaller and not fully cover the Sun's disk.
    • Partial Solar Eclipse:
      • A partial solar eclipse occurs when the Moon partially obscures the Sun's disk as viewed from Earth.
      • During a partial solar eclipse, only a portion of the Sun is blocked by the Moon.
      • This creates a noticeable darkening or crescent shape on the Sun's disk, depending on the extent of the eclipse and the observer's location.
      • Partial solar eclipses are more common than total or annular eclipses and can be observed from a wider geographical area.
    • Hybrid Solar Eclipse:
      • A hybrid solar eclipse, also known as an annular-total eclipse, is a rare type of eclipse that transitions between an annular and a total solar eclipse along its path.
      • In certain sections of the eclipse path, the Moon's apparent size is not large enough to completely cover the Sun's disk, resulting in an annular eclipse. However, along other portions of the path, the Moon is closer to Earth, and its apparent size is large enough to fully cover the Sun's disk, leading to a total eclipse.
      • As a result, observers situated along different parts of the eclipse path may experience either an annular or a total solar eclipse, while those positioned at specific locations along the path may witness a transition between the two types.

How Frequently does a Solar Eclipse Occur?

• A solar eclipse is witnessed only during the new moon when the Moon and Sun are aligned on the same side of Earth.
• A new moon occurs about 29.5 days because that is how long it takes the Moon to orbit Earth.
• Solar eclipses typically happen only from two to five times per year. It is because the Moon does not orbit Earth in the same plane as the Earth orbits the Sun.
• The Moon is tilted by about five degrees with respect to Earth. As a result, most of the time when the Moon is in between the Sun and Earth, its shadow is either too high or too low to fall on the Earth.

Eclipse Magnitude:

• Eclipse magnitude is the fraction of the Sun’s diameter which is covered by the Moon.
• It is strictly a ratio of diameters and should not be confused with eclipse obscuration, which is a measure of the Sun’s surface area covered by the Moon.
• Eclipse magnitude may be expressed as either a percentage or a decimal fraction (e.g., 50% or 0.50).
• By convention, its value is given at the instant of the greatest eclipse.

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ)

Prelims

Q1. On 21st June, the Sun (2019)

(a) does not set below the horizon at the Arctic Circle

(b) does not set below the horizon at Antarctic Circle

(c) shines vertically overhead at noon on the Equator

(d) shines vertically overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn

Ans: (a)

• During ‘Summer Solstice’, on 21st June, the Northern Hemisphere witnesses its longest day of the year, while the Southern Hemisphere sees its shortest day.
• During this time, the Earth’s North Pole is at its maximum tilt towards the Sun and the Sun appears directly overhead at 23.5º north latitude, i.e. along the Tropic of Cancer.
• As the Arctic Circle falls in the Northern Hemisphere, the Sun does not set below the horizon during Summer Solstice, because here the sunrise and sunset start to converge in the northern sky. In contrast, the same event happens in the Antarctic Circle during Winter Solstice, 22nd December.

Therefore, option (a) is the correct answer.

South Africa to End Captive Breeding of Lions

Source: DTE

Why in News?

Recently, South Africa has decided to end captive breeding of lions (Panthera leo) due to concerns over trophy hunting and the use of lion bones in traditional Chinese medicine marks a significant shift in wildlife conservation.

What are the Key Traits of Lions?

• Subspecies: There are two subspecies of lions found in the wild. The African lion (Panthera leo leo) and the Asiatic lion (Panthera leo persica).
  • African lions used to be spread across most of the African continent, but now are only found in sub-Saharan Africa, with 80% in eastern or southern Africa.
    • Asiatic Lions are found at Gir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary in Gujarat, India.
  • Although both subspecies of lions look very similar, there are some differences.
    • Male Asiatic lions tend to have darker, shorter manes compared to African Lions.
    • Additionally, both male and female Asiatic lions are smaller than African lions.

• Habitat: They are most active at night and live in a variety of habitats but prefer grassland, savanna, dense scrub, and open woodland.
• Social Structure: Lions are the most social big cat, living in groups called prides.
  • A pride typically consists of several related females, their cubs, and a few adult males (coalition).
  • Lionesses are the primary hunters, while dominant males are responsible for protecting the pride's territory.
• Hunting and Diet: Lions are apex predators and primarily hunt large ungulates like wildebeest, zebra, and antelope.
  • They typically hunt cooperatively, using their agility and teamwork to take down prey.
  • Also, lions are opportunistic feeders and will not hesitate to scavenge when the opportunity arises, often stealing kills from other predators.
• Threats:
  • They face a multitude of threats from habitat loss and fragmentation to climate change and the reduction of available prey.
  • They are also targeted by trophy hunters.
    • Trophy hunting is a form of hunting where the primary goal is to kill animals for their body parts, such as horns, tusks, or skins, which are then kept as trophies or souvenirs (and not primarily as food).
• Conservation Status:
  • IUCN Red List: Vulnerable
  • CITES: Appendix I
  • Wildlife Protection Act 1972: Schedule I

Note

• In India, Project Lion envisages landscape ecology based conservation of the Asiatic Lion in Gujarat by integrating conservation and eco-development. The Gujarat government has planned to translocate 40 adult and sub-adult lions to the Barda Wildlife Sanctuary in the state, according to a 2023 report by Wildlife Institute of India (WII).

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question:

Prelims:

Q. Consider the following statements: (2019)

1. Asiatic lions are naturally found in India only.
2. Double-humped camels are naturally found in India only.
3. One-horned rhinoceros is naturally found in India only.

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only
(b) 2 only
(c) 1 and 3 only 
(d) 1, 2 and 3

Ans: (a)

Q.2 Recently there was a proposal to translocate some of the lions from their natural habitat in Gujarat to which one of the following sites? (2017)

(a) Corbett National Park 
(b) Kuno Palpur Wildlife Sanctuary
(c) Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary
(d) Sariska National Park

Ans: (b)

Restrictions on Pilgrims Visiting Ahobilam Shrine

Source: TH

Recently, several restrictions have been imposed on visitors to the Ahobilam Temple Complex, which is located within the Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve.

• In response to the severe heatwave and to protect wildlife, restrictions are in place, including a ban on plastic items at Cheethal base camp, no overnight stays due to potential human-animal conflicts, and a prohibition on animal sacrifices at the shrine.
  • The nearby nallamala forest area is home to red sanders, leopards and deer. Tigers also inhabit the area.
• The Ahobilam National Tiger Conservation Authority (NTCA), constituted as per the provisions of the Wild Life Protection Act, 1972, by the Ministry of Forests, Environment and Climate Change, oversees the rare flora and fauna specific to the Region.
  • The Ahobilam Temple Complex consists of 9 shrines to Lord Narisimha situated within the Nallamala forest. In addition to the nine shrines, there is a temple for Prahaladavarada Varadhan in the foothills of the mountain.

Read more: Nagarjunasagar-Srisailam Tiger Reserve

Project Akashteer

Source: ET

The Indian Army has initiated the implementation of control and reporting systems as part of 'Project Akashteer', a strategic move aimed at bolstering its air defence capabilities.

• Developed by Bharat Electronics Limited (BEL), the project is aimed at significantly enhancing the operational efficiency and integration of the Army's air defence mechanisms.
  • BEL is a Navratna PSU under the Ministry of Defence.
• The Akashteer Project stands as a pioneering effort to automate air defence control and reporting processes through digitisation, promising a streamlined approach to complex operations.

Read more: Very Short-Range Air Defence System

India's Agni Prime Missile

Source: BL

The new generation ballistic missile Agni-Prime was successfully flight-tested from the Dr APJ Abdul Kalam Island off the coast of Odisha.

• It was conducted jointly by the Strategic Forces Command (SFC) and Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO).
• The launch aligns with India's strategic goals, as part of its 'Mission Divyastra' program, further solidifying its position among nations with formidable strategic capabilities.
• Agni Prime is a nuclear-capable new-generation advanced variant of the Agni class of missiles. It is a two-stage canister missile with a maximum range of 1,000 to 2,000 km.
  • It is lighter than all the earlier Agni series of missiles.
  • It is equipped with the Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle (MIRV) technology.

Read more: Agni-Prime, Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicle (MIRV) Technology

Suvidha Portal

Source: PIB

The Suvidha portal is a technological solution developed by the Election Commission of India (ECI) to ensure a level playing field upholding the democratic principles of free, fair, and transparent elections.

• The Suvidha Portal aims to streamline requests for permissions and facilities from political parties and candidates during elections, transparently prioritising requests based on the First in First Out principle.
  • It caters to permissions for organising rallies, opening temporary party offices, door-to-door canvassing, video vans, helicopters, obtaining vehicle permits, and distributing pamphlets.
  • Political parties and candidates can easily request permission online through the Suvidha Portal, which also offers offline options for inclusivity, supported by a robust IT platform managed by nodal officers for efficient processing.
  • Additionally, Suvidha's companion app allows applicants to track their requests' real-time status, enhancing convenience and transparency.

Read more: SVEEP

Yoga Mahotsav

Source: PIB

Recently, the 'Yoga Mahotsav' was held in celebration of the 75-day countdown to the International Day of Yoga in Pune.

• The participants performed Common Yoga Protocol (CYP) in complete rhythm and harmony with a mesmerising outcome. It was organised by the Ministry of Ayush, Govt. of India.

International Day of Yoga:

• The United Nations declared 21st June as the International Day of Yoga in 2014.
• The date of 21st June was suggested as it is the longest day of the year in the Northern Hemisphere having special significance in many parts of the world.
• The first International Yoga Day celebration was organised at Rajpath in New Delhi on 21^st June 2015.
• Yoga is an ancient physical, mental, and spiritual practice that originated in India.
• The word ‘yoga’ is derived from Sanskrit and means to join or to unite, symbolising the union of body and consciousness.
• The World Health Organization (WHO) mentions yoga as a means to improve health in its Global Action Plan on Physical Activity 2018–2030.

Read More- International Day of Yoga, World Health Organization (WHO)