WHO Endorses Global Pandemic Agreement

For Prelims: WHO Pandemic Agreement, Non-communicable diseases, Antimicrobial Resistance, Climate Change, Non-Communicable Diseases, Cardiovascular diseases, Malaria. 

For Mains: Major Health Challenges Currently Affecting the World, Role of India in Leading Global Healthcare Efforts, Current Institutional Framework Governing Global Health Management. 

Source: IE 

Why in News? 

The World Health Organization (WHO), at its 78^th World Health Assembly has adopted the world’s first global Pandemic agreement under Article 19 of the WHO Constitution, aiming to strengthen health security and ensure equitable pandemic responses.  

• It is the second legal instrument after the 2003 Framework Convention on Tobacco Control. 

What is the WHO’s Global Pandemic Agreement? 

• About: It was adopted on 20th May 2025, which lays down principles for international cooperation to strengthen global health architecture and ensure timely and equitable access to diagnostics, vaccines, and therapeutics during pandemics. 
  • The treaty is open for signature and ratification and will become binding once ratified by 60 countries. 
• Background: Negotiations for the pandemic treaty began in December 2021 during the Omicron variant of Covid-19, exposing vaccine hoarding by rich countries that denied access to poorer nations.  
  • Studies showed equitable vaccine distribution could have saved over a million lives. To address poor coordination and inequality, WHO member states collaborated to create this treaty. 
• Key Provisions: 
  • Pathogen Access & Equitable Sharing: Pharma companies gain access to pathogen samples and data in return for sharing 10% of their pandemic-related vaccines, therapeutics, and diagnostics with WHO, and  another 10% supplied at affordable prices. 
  • Technology & Knowledge Transfer: Member states must promote and incentivize the sharing of technology and expertise to enable local production of vaccines and drugs in developing countries. 
  • Coordinating Financial Mechanism & GSCL: Member States mandated the initiation of a Coordinating Financial Mechanism for pandemic prevention, preparedness and response. 
    • The Global Supply Chain and Logistics Network (GSCL) was launched to remove barriers and ensure equitable, timely, safe, and affordable access to pandemic-related health products during public health emergencies of international concern. 
  • Research Funding & Access Rights: Countries must ensure publicly funded research includes conditions for timely and fair access to resulting medical products.  
    • Governments should intervene if life-saving medicines developed with public funds are unaffordable or unavailable. 
  • Sovereignty Preserved: WHO is barred from overriding national laws or imposing mandates such as travel bans, vaccination requirements, or lockdowns, ensuring countries retain full authority over their pandemic responses. 

What are the Key Concerns Associated with WHO’s Global Pandemic Agreement? 

• Limited WHO Authority: The treaty explicitly denies WHO powers to direct national laws or impose measures like travel bans, vaccine mandates, or lockdowns, limiting enforcement and compliance during crises. 
• Intellectual Property & Innovation: Pharmaceutical companies seek strong Intellectual Property (IP) protection and legal certainty to support high-risk research and innovation, highlighting the challenge of balancing these with equitable access during pandemics. 
• Unclear Benefit-Sharing Mechanism: The Pathogen Access and Benefit-Sharing System (PABS) aims to govern the sharing of biological materials (pathogens) and genome sequences to ensure fair benefit-sharing, including equitable access to vaccines and diagnostics.  
  • However, its implementation lacks clarity, and the mechanism is still under negotiation, with finalization expected at the 2026 World Health Assembly. 
• US Exit from WHO: The withdrawal of the US, a key player in global pharmaceutical manufacturing, from the WHO, weakens the treaty’s impact, as its pharma companies are not obligated to share data or comply with treaty provisions, creating major gaps in global coordination. 

India’s Contributions in WHO Pandemic Agreement 

• Advocacy for Equity & Global Solidarity: India advocates fair access to vaccines, diagnostics, and therapeutics, especially for Lower-middle-income economies (LMICs) and has pushed for strong equity clauses to counter vaccine nationalism and ensure timely global support. 
• Support for Technology Transfer and IPR Flexibility: India, in partnership with South Africa, led the global call at the WTO for waivers on intellectual property rights (IPR) for Covid-19 vaccines and therapeutics.  
  • It continues to push for balanced IPR provisions in the treaty to facilitate technology transfer and enhance manufacturing capabilities in developing countries. 
• Emphasis on Health System Resilience: India advocates for increased global investment in public health infrastructure, workforce capacity building, and training to strengthen resilient health systems, particularly in low-resource settings. 

What are the Key Global Health Challenges? 

Click Here to Read: Global Health Challenges 

What is the Role of India in Shaping and Advancing Global Health Governance? 

Click Here to Read: Role of India in Global Health Governance 

Note 

• The 78th World Health Assembly also honoured Austria, Norway, Oman, and Singapore for eliminating industrially produced Trans Fatty Acids (TFAs) from their food supplies. 

 

• Efforts Against Trans Fats: 
  • WHO limits trans fats to 2g/100g of total fat or ban partially hydrogenated oils (PHOs). 
  • REPLACE Action Framework (2018) of WHO for global elimination of industrially produced trans fats by 2025. 
    • It had set the target of trans-fat elimination policies in countries that account for at-least 90% of the global trans fat burden and at least 70% within each region by the end of 2025.  
    • However, as of May 2025, 60 countries (46% of the global population) have adopted best-practice policies. 
  • India's Role: 
    • India enforced a 2% limit on trans fats in oils and fats in 2022 under the Food Safety and Standards (Prohibition and Restrictions on Sales) Regulations, 2021.  

Conclusion 

The WHO Pandemic Agreement marks a landmark shift towards a more equitable and coordinated global health framework. It institutionalizes lessons from Covid-19, ensuring faster response, fair vaccine access, and stronger health systems. For India and other nations, early adoption and effective implementation will be crucial in safeguarding against future health emergencies and strengthening global health security. 

Drishti Mains Question:

What is the WHO Global Pandemic Treaty? Discuss the challenges in its adoption and its significance in strengthening global health governance in the post-Covid-19 world.

 

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ)  

Prelims:

Q. Which of the following are the objectives of ‘National Nutrition Mission’? (2017)

1. To create awareness relating to malnutrition among pregnant women and lactating mothers.  
2. To reduce the incidence of anaemia among young children, adolescent girls and women.  
3. To promote the consumption of millets, coarse cereals and unpolished rice.  
4. To promote the consumption of poultry eggs.  

Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

(a) 1 and 2 only  

(b) 1, 2 and 3 only  

(c) 1, 2 and 4 only  

(d) 3 and 4 only  

Ans: (a) 

Mains: 

Q. “Besides being a moral imperative of a Welfare State, primary health structure is a necessary precondition for sustainable development.” Analyse. (2021)

Q. Appropriate local community-level healthcare intervention is a prerequisite to achieve ‘Health for All’ in India. Explain. (2018)

Shift in OPEC+ Production Strategy

For Prelims: Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries, K-shaped recovery, International Energy Agency, World Trade Organisation 

For Mains: Global oil supply dynamics and OPEC+,  India’s energy security and oil import dependency 

Source:TH 

Why in News? 

The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)+ group led by Saudi Arabia decided to increase oil production by 411,000 barrels per day (bpd). This marks the third consecutive month of production hikes, gradually reversing the voluntary output cuts initiated in 2023. 

Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries 

• The OPEC is a permanent intergovernmental organization founded at the Baghdad Conference, in 1960 by Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, and Venezuela, headquartered in Vienna, Austria.  
  • OPEC currently has 12 members, including Algeria, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Saudi Arabia, UAE, and Venezuela. 
  • OPEC works to coordinate oil policies among member countries to ensure stable prices, steady supply to consumers, and fair returns for investors. 
  • OPEC nations produce about 30% of the world’s crude oil, hold 80% of proven reserves, and account for nearly half of global exports, with Saudi Arabia as the largest producer among the OPEC.  
• OPEC+ was formed in 2016 as an alliance between OPEC and 10 other oil producers to address declining oil prices due to US shale oil growth. 
  • OPEC+ includes the OPEC members plus Azerbaijan, Bahrain, Brunei, Kazakhstan, Malaysia, Mexico, Oman, Russia, South Sudan, and Sudan. 
  • The OPEC and OPEC+ countries combined produce about 60% of global oil production. 

What Factors Influenced the Rise in Oil Production by OPEC+? 

• Weak Impact of Output Cuts: In 2023, eight OPEC+ members voluntarily cut oil production by 2.2 million barrels per day (bpd) to support falling prices. 
  • Despite these reductions, global oil prices continued to decline, indicating weak market response. 
• Rise of Overproduction Within OPEC+: Countries like Kazakhstan, Iraq, UAE, and Nigeria produced more oil than their agreed limits. This concerned Saudi Arabia, which made the largest cuts of around 3 million bpd. 
• Post-COVID Market Weakness: Post-pandemic recovery has been K-shaped, leading to weak and uneven oil demand. The oil market now has many freelance producers outside OPEC+, making it more complex. 
  • High investments have gone into expensive offshore and difficult fields that need to keep producing, even if profits are low, due to political and economic reasons. 
  • Big oil exporters like Russia, Iran, and Venezuela are limited by US sanctions. 
  • Non-OPEC+ producers like Brazil and Guyana are also ramping up production, adding to global oversupply. 
  • Shale producers in the US have returned stronger, making the market more competitive and less responsive to OPEC+ controls. 
• Shift from Price Support to Market Share: With price stabilization efforts failing, Saudi Arabia revived its old strategy of chasing market share over price. 
  • Saudi Arabia is known as the “swing producer” due to its large spare oil production capacity and preference for stable, moderately high prices to maintain steady revenues.  
  • However, when other producers exceed their quotas, Saudi Arabia floods the market (as seen in 1985–86, 1998, 2014–16, and 2020) to pressure high-cost producers and reassert its leadership. 

 

How is Global Oil Demand Evolving? 

• Weakening Global Oil Demand: The International Energy Agency (IEA) expects global oil demand to grow only 0.73% in 2025. 
  • The “peak demand” theory (the idea that global oil demand will reach its highest point and then permanently decline) is gaining credibility, with indicators like a global economic slowdown, rising EV adoption, and stronger climate action.  
    • These trends, compounded by disruptions such as the US tariff war, have led to reduced global GDP (S&P Global forecasts global GDP growth of just 2.2% in 2025 and 2.4% in 2026 weakest since the 2008 crisis) and trade forecasts.  
  • As a result, oil demand may plateau, and prices may not rebound even if supply constraints ease. 
• Trade Risks: World Trade Organisation (WTO) predicts a 0.2% annual decline in global trade in 2025. This may cause oil prices to remain subdued despite supply cuts, challenging traditional supply-demand price mechanisms. 
• Sanctions and Supply-Side Constraints: Key oil producers like Russia, Iran, and Venezuela are under US sanctions, reducing their export capacity (a situation that may change if sanctions are lifted). 

What are the Implications of Global Oil Price Volatility for India’s Economy? 

• India’s Growing Oil Demand: India is the world’s 3rd-largest crude importer (after China and the US) with demand growth (~3.2% in 2024-25) nearly four times the global rate. 
  • India is expected to contribute nearly 25% of global crude demand growth in 2025 and become the primary demand driver until 2040. 
• Short-Term Benefits: Lower crude prices can reduce India’s import bill, with every USD 1 drop in oil prices saving roughly USD 1.5 billion annually. 
• Long-Term Risks: Lower oil revenues can weaken the economies of key Gulf trading partners, reducing bilateral trade, investments, and tourism. 
  • It could lead to possible job losses for over nine million Indian expatriates in the Gulf, threatening remittance inflows (approx USD 50 billion), which support India’s balance of payments. 
  • Tax revenues linked to oil and gas sectors also reduce, impacting government finances. 
• Need for Diversification: India faces the strategic imperative to reduce hydrocarbon dependence and develop new growth drivers to mitigate risks from volatile oil markets. 

Drishti Mains Question:

OPEC+ has shifted its focus from price control to market share. Critically analyze how this change impacts global oil markets and India's energy security.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

Prelims

Q. Other than Venezuela, which one among the following from South America is a member of OPEC? (2009)

(a) Argentina 
(b) Bolivia 
(c) Ecuador 
(d) Brazil 

Ans: (c) 

---

Mains 

Q. “Access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy is the sine qua non to achieve Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)”.Comment on the progress made in India in this regard. (2018)

Strengthening Medium Enterprises as a Catalyst for MSME Growth

For Prelims: Ministry of Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises, Manufacturing Sector, Mudra Yojana expansion, Udyam portal, Government e-Marketplace, Production-Linked Incentive, Economic Survey 2024-25, Digital MSME 2.0  

For Mains: Role of MSMEs in India’s Economic Growth,  Key Issues Hindering the Growth of MSME Sector. 

Source: IE 

Why in News?

NITI Aayog has released a report titled ‘Designing a Policy for Medium Enterprises’, proposing a dedicated concessional credit scheme and reforms to boost India’s medium-sized enterprises( that includes enterprises with investment in plant and machinery up to ₹125 crore and an annual turnover up to ₹500 crore).  

• The report can also serve as a potential blueprint for addressing the challenges faced by small and micro enterprises, paving the way for a more inclusive and scalable MSME ecosystem. 

What are the Key Policy Recommendations of NITI Aayog for Medium Enterprises? 

• Facilitating Financial Access: Introduce a dedicated working capital scheme offering concessional loans up to Rs 25 crore and a Medium Enterprise Credit Card with pre-approved limits up to Rs 5 crore for emergency funds.  
  • Extend the Non-Performing Asset (NPA) classification period from 90 to 180 days to ease liquidity pressures. 
• Technology Integration & Industry 4.0: Upgrade existing Technology Centres into India SME Industry 4.0 Competence Centres providing AI, IoT, and automation support through a hub-and-spoke model (links a central unit to multiple branches) to ensure wider outreach and phased implementation for smooth adoption. 
• Strengthening R&D & Innovation: Allocate 25–30% of Government funding from the Self-Reliant India Fund specifically for medium enterprises’ R&D.  
  • Establish a three-tier governance system and promote competition-based funding aligned with national priorities. 
• Cluster-Based Testing & Quality Certification:  Expand the MSE-Cluster Development Programme to medium enterprises by setting up sector-specific testing facilities within industrial clusters, reducing costs and improving export quality compliance through public-private partnerships and digital tools. 
• Customized Skill Development: Enhance real-time skill gap mapping via the MSME Sampark Portal and expand the Entrepreneurship and Skill Development Programme to include cluster-specific, technology-linked, and export-oriented training.  
• Centralized Digital Portal: Create a dedicated sub-portal on the Udyam platform consolidating information on schemes, compliance, finance, and market access, integrated with AI tools for eligibility assistance, compliance tracking, and real-time regulatory and market updates.

Note: While medium enterprises act as catalysts through higher innovation, investment, and export capacity, it is crucial to strengthen the entire MSME ecosystem, including micro and small enterprises—which are vital to inclusive economic growth and rural employment. A synergistic approach can amplify sectoral development and resilience. 

What are Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises (MSMEs)? 

• About:  MSMEs are businesses that produce, process, and preserve goods and commodities. 
• Classification: These are broadly classified into  micro, small and medium enterprises based on their investment in plant and machinery for manufacturing or equipment for service enterprises, as well as their annual turnover. 

 

• MSME  Scenario:  As per Udyam Portal (Feb 2025), India has 5.93 crore MSMEs, with micro enterprises forming over 98%, while medium enterprises account for just 0.3% (69,300 units).  
  • Out of 2.95 crore registered MSMEs (as per MSME Annual Report 2023-24), 72% are engaged in the service sector and remaining 28% in the manufacturing sector. 
• Significance: 
  • Contribution to GDP & Employment:  MSMEs currently contribute approximately 29% to India's GDP, producing 6,000+ diverse products and employ over 60% of India’s workforce. 
    • MSMEs create 27 crore jobs, with women comprising 26% of the workforce. 
    • While micro enterprises generate 89% of MSME jobs, medium enterprises contribute 3%, but with a high per unit employment of ~89 persons. 
  • Contribution to Exports: MSMEs account for 40% of India's exports despite only 1.36% of registered MSMEs are exporters. 
    • Of these, 64% have an export turnover of less than Rs 1 crore. 
  • Green & Sustainable Growth: MSMEs lead India’s green industrial push by adopting clean energy and circular economy practices. Schemes like RAMP (with World Bank support) and Telangana MSME Policy (Rs 4,000 crore) focus on sustainable growth and entrepreneurship. 
  • Leading Digital & Technological Transformation: MSMEs are rapidly adopting digital payments, automation, and AI. Programs like ONDC and the Rs 1 lakh crore interest-free innovation fund support this shift.  
    • 72% of MSME transactions are now digital. 

Click Here to Read More: Role of MSMEs in India’s Economic Growth 

 

What are the Key Issues Associated with MSMEs in India? 

• Access to Finance: Despite schemes like Mudra Yojana and PM Vishwakarma, MSMEs face credit hurdles due to lack of collateral, high interest rates, and complex loan procedures. Many fail to meet formal lender criteria, pushing them toward unreliable informal credit sources. 
  • As per SIDBI Report 2025, 17% of surveyed MSMEs did not avail any credit, while 8% relied on informal sources, micro enterprises being most impacted (12%). 
• Regulatory and Compliance Burden: MSMEs struggle with complex tax structures, frequent policy changes, and onerous compliance, lacking manpower and expertise. While GST has eased some processes, the regulatory load remains heavy, leading to penalties and financial stress. 
  • Multiple overlapping laws across labor, taxation, and environmental regulations create bureaucratic roadblocks.   
• Infrastructure and Logistics Gaps: Poor transport, warehousing, and supply chains increase costs and delays, especially in rural areas, limiting market expansion and customer satisfaction. 
  • The Economic Survey 2022-23 pointed out that logistics costs in India were in the range of 14-18% of GDP against the global benchmark of 8%.   
• Technology Adoption Lag: Most MSMEs lack access to AI, IoT, automation due to financial and technical constraints, reducing competitiveness and innovation. Digital payment integration is weak, and cybersecurity remains inadequate, increasing operational risks. 
  • Of 64 million MSMEs, just 7.7 million have achieved digital maturity. 
  • According to a survey by the Ministry of MSMEs, only 45% of MSMEs have adopted some form of AI in their operations  
• Skilled Workforce Shortage: MSMEs rely heavily on semi/unskilled labor, affecting efficiency. Lack of targeted training and skilled manpower in technical/managerial roles constrains growth and productivity. 
  • About 47% of MSMEs report difficulty in finding employees with the right skills, especially in manufacturing and IT-enabled services, where specialised talent is crucial for sustained growth. 
• Market Access and Competition: MSMEs face low brand visibility, restricted marketing budgets, and limited market intelligence.  
  • Only 1.36% of registered MSMEs are currently exporting. And even in them, Medium enterprises, though just 9% of exporting units contribute 40% of MSME exports. 
• High Informality: Despite recent improvements, still a major portion of MSMEs operate unregistered, lacking access to formal credit, govt. schemes, and IPR/legal protection. Weak documentation undermines credibility and scalability.  

Click Here to Read More: Challenges Related to MSME Sector 

What Steps can India Adopt to Strengthen and Revitalize the MSME Sector? 

• Simplifying Compliance & Formalisation: Complex tax rules increase MSME costs and discourage formalisation.  
  • India should adopt a unified tax filing system with simplified rates and pre-filled forms, using GST Sahaj and Udyam portals, like Brazil’s SIMPLES program.  
  • To support growing firms, a 3-year transition with tax benefits should be given to ease compliance. 
• Real-Time Monitoring & Policy Evaluation: A central MSME Performance Dashboard should be made to track credit, technology use, exports, employment, and skills.  
  • A high-powered MSME transformation council should coordinate data collection and policy oversight for better monitoring and evaluation. 
• Improve Access to Finance: Use fintech tools like alternative credit scoring (based on trade and utility payments), blockchain lending, and digital collateral systems to help small and rural MSMEs get affordable and timely loans, going beyond existing credit schemes. 
• Promote Technology and Innovation: Set up regional Innovation Centers where MSMEs can use new technologies like AI, IoT, robotics, and cloud computing. 
  • These centers should provide affordable tech support, mentorship, and chances to work with research groups. 
• Build Skills and Entrepreneurship: Start a national mission to train MSME workers in digital skills, vocational training, leadership, and entrepreneurship.  
  • Use online learning, apprenticeships, and global certification to make sure the workforce meets modern needs. 
• Expand Market Access and Branding: Create one digital portal that links domestic marketplaces like GeM with global export platforms.  
  • This will make it easier for MSMEs to list products, get export help, and access market data. Also, run campaigns like “Vocal for Local” to promote MSME products nationally and internationally. 
• Support Sustainable and Inclusive Growth: Encourage MSMEs to use clean technologies with green loans, carbon credits, and training on sustainability. Improve rural MSMEs by boosting infrastructure, supporting agriculture-based industries, and including women and marginalized groups in business chains. 

Conclusion 

NITI Aayog’s recommendations for medium enterprises focus on financial access, technology, and skill development to strengthen this key segment. Expanding these reforms to include all MSMEs is vital. A unified approach addressing finance, innovation, market access, and sustainability will revitalize the entire MSME sector, boosting India’s economy and employment. 

Drishti Mains Question:

Discuss the role of MSMEs  in India’s economic development and analyze the key policy recommendations of NITI Aayog aimed at addressing their challenges.  

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question:(PYQ)  

Prelims:

Q.1 What is/are the recent policy initiative(s)of Government of India to promote the growth of the manufacturing sector? (2012)  

1. Setting up of National Investment and Manufacturing Zones  
2. Providing the benefit of ‘single window clearance’  
3. Establishing the Technology Acquisition and Development Fund  

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:  

(a) 1 only  

(b) 2 and 3 only  

(c) 1 and 3 only  

(d) 1, 2 and 3 

Ans: (d) 

Q2. Which of the following can aid in furthering the Government’s objective of inclusive growth? (2011)  

1. Promoting Self-Help Groups  
2. Promoting Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises  
3. Implementing the Right to Education Act  

Select the correct answer using the codes given below:  

(a) 1 only  

(b) 1 and 2 only  

(c) 2 and 3 only  

(d) 1, 2 and 3  

Ans: (d) 

Q3. Consider the following statements with reference to India : (2023)  

1. According to the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises Development (MSMED) Act, 2006, the ‘medium enterprises’ are those with investments in plant and machinery between `15 crore and `25 crore.  
2. All bank loans to the Micro, Small and Medium Enterprises qualify under the priority sector.  

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  

(a) 1 only  

(b) 2 only  

(c) Both 1 and 2  

(d) Neither 1 nor 2  

Ans: (b)

TR1 Cells Lead the Fight Against Malaria

Source: TH 

Why in News? 

A new study has revealed that TR1 (Type-1 Regulatory T-cells), rather than TH1 cells, are the main drivers of the immune response to malaria, challenging earlier assumptions.

What are TR1 Cells? 

• About: TR1 cells, or Type-1 Regulatory T-cells, are a specialized group of CD4+ helper T-cells that play a key role in regulating the immune system.  
  • Unlike other T-cells that mainly attack pathogens, TR1 cells help control and balance immune responses by reducing inflammation and preventing excessive immune reactions.  
  • CD4+ cells (helper T cells) are a type of white blood cell (lymphocyte) that play a central role in adaptive immunity. They express the CD4 protein on their surface and help coordinate the immune response. 
• Role Against Malaria: When infected by Plasmodium falciparum, the body must balance fighting the parasite and avoiding excessive immune damage.  
  • TR1 cells promote immune tolerance by controlling inflammation, allowing coexistence with the parasite and helping develop clinical immunity that prevents severe illness.  
  • Essentially, TR1 cells act as peacekeepers, moderating the immune response to protect the body.

What are the Key Components of the Human Immune System? 

• Physical Barriers: These include the skin and mucous membranes that act as the first line of defense by preventing pathogens from entering the body. 
• Innate Immunity: This is the immediate, non-specific defense mechanism that includes physical barriers, white blood cells like neutrophils, macrophages, and natural killer cells, as well as the inflammatory response (such as swelling and fever).  
  • It provides rapid protection against any invading pathogens. 
• Adaptive Immunity: A slower but highly specific defense system that targets particular pathogens and creates memory for long-term protection. It involves specialized cells called lymphocytes, mainly B-cells and T-cells. 
  • B-cells: B-cells produce antibodies, which are proteins that bind specifically to antigens (foreign molecules on pathogens) to neutralize or mark them for destruction. 
  • T-cells: T-cells develop in the thymus and include: 
    • Helper T cells: Activate B-cells to produce antibodies, assist macrophages in killing microbes, and stimulate killer T cells. 
    • Killer T cells: Destroy virus-infected cells, cancer cells, and damaged cells. 
    • Regulatory T cells: Help control and balance the immune response. 
• Lymphatic System: Organs like lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, and bone marrow produce and house immune cells, filtering out pathogens and coordinating immune responses. 
• Chemical Messengers: Molecules like cytokines help immune cells communicate and regulate the body’s defense mechanisms. 

What is Malaria? 

• About: Malaria is a life-threatening vector-borne disease caused by the Plasmodium parasites, transmitted through the bites of infected female Anopheles mosquitoes. 
  • There are 5 Plasmodium parasite species that cause malaria in humans and 2 of these species – P. falciparum and P. vivax – pose the greatest threat. 
• Transmission: The mosquito becomes infected after biting an infected person. The malaria parasites then enter the bloodstream of the next person the mosquito bites.  
  • The parasites travel to the liver, mature, and then infect red blood cells. 
• Treatment:  
  • Artemisinin-based Combination Therapies (ACTs): It is the most effective treatment for Plasmodium falciparum malaria, combining artemisinin with another antimalarial drug. 
  • Chloroquine: It is used primarily for Plasmodium vivax and other non-falciparum malaria where resistance is not present. 
  • Primaquine: It is used to eliminate dormant liver forms (hypnozoites) of P. vivax and P. ovale to prevent relapse. 
  • Other Drugs: Such as quinine, mefloquine, and doxycycline, used in specific cases or drug-resistant infections. 
• Vaccine: The RTS,S/AS01 malaria vaccine, known as Mosquirix, became the first malaria vaccine to receive a World Health Organization (WHO) recommendation. 
  • The Serum Institute of India (SII), in collaboration with the University of Oxford, has developed a malaria vaccine called R21/Matrix-M, which has been recommended by WHO for use in malaria-endemic regions.   
• India’s Efforts to Contain Malaria: National Framework for Malaria Elimination 2016-2030, National Vector-Borne Disease Control Programme, National Malaria Control Programme (NMCP), Malaria Elimination Research Alliance-India (MERA-India). 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)  

Q. Widespread resistance of malarial parasites to drugs like chloroquine has prompted attempts to develop a malaria vaccine to combat malaria. Why is it difficult to develop an effective malaria vaccine? (2010) 

(a) Malaria is caused by several species of Plasmodium  

(b) Man does not develop immunity to malaria during natural infection  

(c) Vaccines can be developed only against bacteria  

(d) Man is only an intermediate host and not the definitive host  

 Ans: (b)

Press Council of India

Source: TH 

Why in News? 

Lok Sabha Speaker has nominated 3 Members of Parliament (MP) to the Press Council of India (PCI). 

What are the Key Facts Related to the Press Council of India (PCI)? 

• About: PCI is a statutory, quasi-judicial autonomous body, initially established on 16th November 1966 by Parliament under the Indian Press Council Act, 1965 based on the recommendations of the First Press Commission. 
  • It was formally established in 1966, with Justice J.R. Mudholkar, then a judge of the Supreme Court, as chairman. 
  • It was abolished during Emergency (1975) and later reconstituted in 1979 under the Press Council Act, 1978. 
• Objective: To preserve the freedom of the press and maintain and improve the standards of newspapers and news agencies in India. 
• Composition & Term: It consists of 29 members (1 Chairman + 28 Members). Chairman is  conventionally a retired Supreme Court judge nominated by a committee comprising the Vice President (Rajya Sabha Chairman), Lok Sabha Speaker, and a member elected by the PCI. 
  • The 28 other members include 13 working journalists, 6 newspaper owners/managers, 1 news agency representative, 5 MPs and 3 experts nominated by UGC, Bar Council, and Sahitya Akademi. 
  • The term of the Chairman and other members is 3 years. 
• Funding: Through grants-in-aid from the Central Government (appropriated by Parliament) and graded fees collected from newspapers, and other receipts. 
• Functions: It frames a media code of conduct, ensures ethical and accurate reporting, fosters public responsibility, monitors restrictions on news flow, and oversees foreign media assistance. 
  • It also studies foreign newspapers’ impact, addresses media ownership concerns, promotes industry cooperation, and advises the Central Government to uphold press freedom and accountability. 
• Powers: It can censure, warn, or admonish newspapers, agencies, editors, or journalists for violations of journalistic ethics after a fair inquiry.  
  • It may also require publication of inquiry details in public interest.  
  • Its decisions are final and cannot be appealed before a court of law. 
  • It has power of civil courts, summoning witnesses, examining documents, and conducting inquiries deemed judicial proceedings. 
  • However, it cannot compel disclosure of journalistic sources. 
• Limitations: The powers of the PCI are limited as it cannot enforce penalties for guideline violations and only oversees print media such as newspapers and magazines.  
  • It has no authority over electronic media, including radio, television, and internet platforms. 

Note 

• National Press Day is celebrated annually on 16th November to commemorate the founding of the Press Council of India (PCI). 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

Prelims

Q. Right to Privacy is protected as an intrinsic part of Right to Life and Personal Liberty. Which of the following in the Constitution of India correctly and appropriately imply the above statement? (2018)

(a) Article 14 and the provisions under the 42nd Amendment to the Constitution. 
(b) Article 17 and the Directive Principles of State Policy in Part IV. 
(c) Article 21 and the freedoms guaranteed in Part III. 
(d) Article 24 and the provisions under the 44th Amendment to the Constitution. 

Ans: (c)

Mount Khangchendzonga

Source: TH 

Sikkim has urged the Union Government to consider restricting mountaineering activities on Mt. Khangchendzonga, acknowledging its profound religious significance to the indigenous communities of the state. 

• About Mt. Khangchendzonga: It is India’s highest peak  (8,568 meters) and the world’s third-highest, located on the Sikkim-Nepal border. 
  • It is sacred to Sikkim’s indigenous people, revered as the abode of the guardian deity Dzoe-Nga (Pho-lha). 
  • Dzoe-Nga is recognized as guardians of the land by Ugyen Guru Rinpoche (Guru Padmasambhava), Sikkim’s Patron Saint. 
    • The indigenous Lepcha community traditionally followed the Mun faith, led by priests called Bongthings, and have a rich oral tradition of poetry, songs, and myths. 
  • Climbing is prohibited on the Sikkim side but permitted from the Nepal side. The mountain was first successfully climbed in 1955 by Charles Band and Joe Brown. 

 

• About Khangchendzonga National Park: It  is a UNESCO World Heritage Site (2016) and a part of the UNESCO World Network of Biosphere Reserves (2018). 
  • It is India’s first Mixed World Heritage Site, renowned for its diverse ecosystem comprising plains, valleys, mountains, glaciers, lakes, and forests.  
  • It is part of the Eastern Himalayan biodiversity hotspot and the Dzongu Valley in North Sikkim is especially rich in medicinal plants. 
  • Fauna: Blood Pheasant (State Bird of Sikkim), Red Panda, Snow Leopard, Musk Deer etc. 

Read More: Khangchendzonga To Be Included In The World Network of Biosphere Reserves 

China's Tianwen-2 Mission

Source: IE 

China is set to launch the Tianwen-2 mission, aiming to survey and sample the near-Earth asteroid 469219 Kamo‘oalewa. 

• Tianwen-1: Tianwen-1 (2020) was a Chinese mission to Mars that included an orbiter, a lander, and a rover to explore the Martian surface. 
• About Tianwen-2 Mission: It is a near-Earth asteroid (NEAs) sample return and main asteroid belt comet orbiter mission that aims to demonstrate China's capabilities in complex deep space operations. 
  • NEAs are asteroids with orbits that bring them close to Earth. Those whose paths cross Earth's orbit are called Earth-crossers. 
• Significance: It will make China one of the few nations after the US (OSIRIS-Rex) and Japan (Hayabusa 2) to retrieve asteroid samples and return them to Earth. 
• Objectives: It aims to investigate Kamo‘oalewa’s unusual orbit and potential lunar origin, testing the hypothesis that it may be a lunar fragment from an ancient Earth-Moon collision. 
  • Discovered in 2016, Kamoʻoalewa is one of only seven known quasi-satellites of Earth. 
  • Quasi satellites orbit the Sun but because of their close distance to the planet, they are gravitationally influenced by the planet. 
  • Quasi-satellites like Kamoʻoalewa are known to shift their orbits in 100-300 years.   
• Sampling Techniques: It will use a “touch-and-go” technique (robotic arm propels fragments into chamber) to collect asteroid samples, with an optional “anchor and attach” method for drilling if needed. 
• Future Plans: After Kamo'oalewa, Tianwen-2 will orbit and analyze a comet in the asteroid belt (between Mars and Jupiter). 
  • Tianwen-3 (2028) aims to return samples from Mars for the first time.

Read More: NASA's OSIRIS-REx Mission, Dust Samples from Hayabusa 2 

Extension of Modified Interest Subvention Scheme

Source: PIB 

The Union Cabinet has approved the continuation of the Modified Interest Subvention Scheme (MISS) for FY 2025–26. 

• Under this scheme, 1.5% interest subvention will continue to be provided to banks for short-term crop loans up to Rs 3 lakh issued through the Kisan Credit Card (KCC) platform. 

Modified Interest Subvention Scheme (MISS)  

• About: Launched in 2006–07 as Interest Subvention Scheme. 
  • MISS is a Central Sector Scheme under the Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers’ Welfare (MoA&FW).  
  • It provides concessional short-term credit for agriculture and allied activities via KCC.  
  • While loans are sanctioned at 7% interest, a 3% Prompt Repayment Incentive (PRI), given for prompt and timely repayment of loans reduces the effective rate to 4%, making credit more affordable. 
• Implementation: Jointly implemented and monitored by RBI and NABARD with Public Sector Banks, RRBs, Cooperative Banks and Private Sector Banks. 
• Key Features: 
  • Revolving credit facility under KCC for up to 5 years with flexible withdrawals. 
  • Collateral-free loans up to Rs 2 lakh. 
  • Interest relief up to 1 year during natural calamities, extendable to 5 years for severe disasters. 
  • Targets small and marginal farmers, who account for 76% of agri-credit accounts. 
  • The government launched the Kisan Rin Portal (KRP) to digitally track interest subvention claims. 
• Kisan Rin Portal (KRP) 
  • Launched in 2023 collaboratively by MoA&FW, Ministry of Finance, RBI, and NABARD. 
  • KRP aims to track interest subvention claims digitally, ensuring faster disbursement, greater transparency, and accountability, benefiting both farmers and banks.

Read More: Agriculture Development in India, Agricultural Initiatives and their Implementation   

Mount Augustus Snail

Source: TH 

For the first time, the rare Mount Augustus Snail (Powelliphanta augusta snail) has been filmed laying an egg from its neck, revealing unique reproductive behavior. 

• Biology & Characteristics: Endemic to New Zealand, it is among the world’s largest carnivorous land snails. It is distinguished by its vibrant, swirling shell patterns.  
  • This slow-growing species preys on slugs and earthworms. In captivity, it has a lifespan of 25 to 35 years. 
• Reproduction: It is hermaphroditic (have both male and female organs), mating through mutual sperm exchange via a genital pore on the neck.  
  • It reaches sexual maturity at 8 years, lays around 5 eggs annually, and each egg takes over a year to hatch. 
• Threats & Habitat Loss: Native only to Mount Augustus (New Zealand), its habitat was destroyed by coal mining in the early 2000s.

Snails: 

• Snails are mollusks belonging to the gastropod class, easily identifiable by their spiral shells, which they retract into for protection or when resting.  
• They are one of the two primary species in this class, with the other being slugs. The key difference between snails and slugs is the presence of an external shell in snails, while slugs lack one.

Read More: New Species of Land Snail in Maharashtra.