Marine Heatwaves

For Prelims: Marine Heatwaves (MHWs), Sea Surface Temperatures, El Nino, Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO), Gulf Stream, Kelp Forests, Seagrass Meadows, Coral Reefs, Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), Wetlands, UNCLOS, UN Decade of Ocean Science (2021-2030), UN Plastic Treaty.                      

For Mains: Marine Heatwaves, its causes and consequences, Steps needed to curb marine heatwaves. 

Source: TH   

Why in News? 

Scientists have found that the marine heatwaves (MHWs) affected 96% of the ocean surface in 2023, raising fears of a permanent temperature shift that could disrupt life in oceans and on land. 

What are Key Facts Regarding Marine Heatwaves? 

• About: A MHW is an extreme weather event marked by sea surface temperatures rising 3 to 4°C above average in a specific region for at least five days. It can persist for weeks, months, or even years. 
• Key Causes of MHWs: 
  • Global Warming: Rising CO₂ levels trap heat, warming the ocean surface and depths, while oceans absorb 90% of excess heat, increasing the risk of MHWs. 
  • El Nino: El Nino warms upper ocean layers, weakening upwelling and trapping surface heat, while the Pacific Decadal Oscillation (PDO) amplifies marine heatwaves by shifting Pacific temperature patterns. 
    • PDO is often described as a long-lived El Nino-like pattern of Pacific climate variability. 
  • Reduced Cloud Cover: With fewer clouds, more sunlight reaches the ocean, causing rapid surface warming e.g., Atlantic heatwaves of 2023. 
  • Changing Ocean Currents: Changes in ocean currents like the Gulf Stream can raise regional sea temperatures, worsening marine heatwaves. E.g., a weaker Gulf Stream has caused warmer waters along the US East Coast, affecting hurricanes and sea-level rise. 
  • Human-Induced Feedback Loops: Arctic warming melts reflective sea ice, exposing dark waters that absorb more heat, while coral die-offs reduce CO₂ absorption, accelerating global warming. 
• Projected Trends: The ocean’s average temperature has risen by 1.5°C over the past century, and by 2100, MHWs could become up to 50 times more frequent than in preindustrial times. 

What are the Effects of Marine Heatwaves on Oceans and Climate? 

• Climatic Impacts: MHWs can fuel extreme weather such as tropical storms and hurricanes, and disrupt the water cycle, increasing the frequency and intensity of floods, droughts, and wildfires. 
  • E.g., Hurricane Ian, a Category 4 storm, in Florida, US. 
• Economic Impact: MHWs impact aquaculture as farmed species require stable temperatures, and harm fisheries by driving species away from warming waters, affecting local economies. 
  • E.g., Decline is recorded in key species like lobster and snow crab (Northwest Atlantic) and scallops (Western Australia). 
• Ecological Consequences: MHWs cause mass mortality of invertebrates, disrupt food webs, trigger wildlife behavior changes (e.g., whales entangled in gear), and promote the spread of invasive species, threatening native biodiversity.  
  • Kelp forests, seagrass meadows, and coral reefs are highly vulnerable to MHWs. E.g., the 2011 MHW event off Western Australia caused ecosystem collapse and local extinctions over hundreds of kilometers. 
• Compounding Environmental Stressors: MHWs often coincide with ocean acidification, deoxygenation, and overfishing, creating combined pressures that worsen habitat destruction. 

How Can We Prevent and Mitigate Marine Heatwaves? 

• Strengthen Ocean Monitoring: Expand marine monitoring systems and enhance climate modelling to improve real-time tracking and accurate prediction of MHWs. 
• Protect and Restore Marine Ecosystems: Conserve coral reefs and mangroves, establish Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), and restore degraded coastal zones like seagrasses, salt marshes, and wetlands that absorb CO₂ to boost ecosystem resilience and biodiversity. 
• Advance Sustainable Fishing and Aquaculture: Promote climate-resilient aquaculture with heat-tolerant species and sustainable feed, and develop early warning systems to alert fishing communities about MHWs. 
• Enhance Global Cooperation: Strengthen Paris Agreement commitments, support vulnerable nations with climate finance and technology transfer, and promote global ocean governance through treaties like UNCLOS and the UN Decade of Ocean Science (2021-2030).  
• Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions (GHGs): Transition to renewables, implement carbon pricing, and promote sustainable transport and industries to cut emissions and combat climate change. 
• Reduce Local Stressors on Oceans: Reduce ocean stressors by curbing pollution through the UN Plastic Treaty and sustainable farming, and cool ocean surfaces using reflective infrastructure and artificial upwelling. 

Conclusion 

Marine heatwaves threaten ocean health, weather stability, and coastal economies. Combating them requires global emission cuts, marine ecosystem protection, and advanced monitoring. Without urgent action, MHWs will intensify, causing irreversible damage to biodiversity and human livelihoods. A coordinated climate-ocean policy is essential to safeguard our oceans and future. 

Drishti Mains

Question: "Marine heatwaves are emerging as a silent crisis for ocean ecosystems." Discuss their causes, impacts, and mitigation strategies. 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)   

Prelims 

Q. With reference to Ocean Mean Temperature (OMT), which of the following statements is/are correct? (2020)

1. OMT is measured up to a depth of 26ºC isotherm which is 129 meters in the south-western Indian Ocean during January-March.  
2. OMT collected during January-March can be used in assessing whether the amount of rainfall in monsoon will be less or more than a certain long term mean.  

Select the correct answer using the code given below:  

(a) 1 only    

(b) 2 only   

(c) Both 1 and 2    

(d) Neither 1 nor 2  

Ans: (b)

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Mains

Q. Discuss global warming and mention its effects on the global climate. Explain the control measures to bring down the level of greenhouse gases which cause global warming, in the light of the Kyoto Protocol, 1997. (2022)

Q. Assess the impact of global warming on the coral life system with examples. (2017)

Central Empowered Committee Report on CAMPA

For Prelims:  Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA),  Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF) Act, 2016, Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980, Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), Comptroller and Auditor General of India 

For Mains: CEC Report on CAMPA, About CAMPA, Challenges Related to its Implementations and Way Forward 

Source: TH 

Why in News?

The Supreme Court-mandated Central Empowered Committee (CEC) assessed India's compensatory afforestation initiatives, finding that while 85% of the target has been met, only 67.5% of the  CAMPA funds have been utilized.

What is Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA)? 

• About:  The CAMPA is a statutory body established (in both at centre and states/UTs) under Compensatory Afforestation Fund (CAF) Act, 2016. 
  • It aims to manage and oversee funds collected for compensatory afforestation when forest land is diverted for non-forest purposes. 
• Background: The Supreme Court established CAMPA in 2002 through the T.N. Godavarman vs Union of India (1995) case to monitor and guide Compensatory Afforestation (CA).  
  • It was created as an ad-hoc National Advisory Council due to unutilized afforestation funds and inconsistent fund management by states. 
• Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980: As per the Forest (Conservation) Act, 1980 when forest land is diverted for non-forest purposes, the user agency is required to: 
  • Provide an alternative non-forest land for afforestation. 
  • Bear all the costs associated with the afforestation process. 
  • In cases where suitable non-forest land is unavailable for afforestation, the user agency must undertake afforestation on twice the area of degraded forest land. 
• CAF Act, 2016: The CAF Act, 2016 came into force in 2018 and CAF Rules, 2018 institutionalized the management of afforestation funds.  
  • Dedicated Funds Created: The National CAF (NCAF) is managed under the Public Account of India by National CAMPA (MoEFCC), and the State CAF (SCAF) is managed under the Public Accounts of States/UTs by State CAMPA Authorities. Both are interest-bearing and non-lapsable. 
  • Fund Management: 90% of the CAMPA funds are allocated to States/UTs for afforestation, while 10% is retained by the Centre for oversight and capacity-building. The funds accrue annual interest as determined by the Central Government. 
  • CAG annually audits both National and State CAMPA for financial accountability. 
• Permissible Activities Under CAMPA Funds: CAMPA funds support afforestation (compensatory, additional, penal), catchment treatment, and natural regeneration.  
  • They also aid forest and wildlife management, human-wildlife conflict mitigation, village relocation from protected areas, and initiatives for capacity building, and infrastructure development for forest and wildlife protection. 

What are the Key Challenges in Implementation of CAF Act, 2016? 

• Land Availability Constraints: The CAF Act, 2016 mandates that afforestation land be adjacent and contiguous to the diverted forest for better management. 
  • However, suitable non-forest land is often unavailable, especially in smaller states and heavily forested regions like Chhattisgarh. The land provided is frequently unsuitable for plantations and unfit for other productive uses. 
• Diversion & Underutilisation of Funds: CAMPA funds, especially those collected before 2016, remained largely underutilised until serious implementation began post the CAF Act.  
  • Diversion of funds to other schemes like the Green India Mission has diluted the focus on compensatory afforestation. 
• Ecological Limitations & Monoculture:  Monoculture plantations under CAMPA reduce biodiversity, face biotic pressure, disrupt ecological corridors, and cause edge effects (ecological disruptions at habitat boundaries), weakening overall ecosystem integrity. 
• Greenwashing & Rights Violations: Experts warn of greenwashing, where compensatory afforestation replaces rich forests with commercial plantations, lacking ecosystem services.  
  • They also highlight how unilateral fund control by forest officials sidelines tribals and forest dwellers, violating Forest Rights Act, 2006. 
• Policy & Institutional Gaps: Delays in plan submissions, fund release, and lack of dedicated CAMPA offices hinder implementation. The Parliamentary Committee flagged the CAF Act's bureaucratic nature and absence of timelines.  
  • The IPCC 2023 report warned that replacing natural forests with afforestation elsewhere leads to net ecological loss, weakening climate and biodiversity goals. 

What Measures Can be Taken to Strengthen CAMPA? 

• Ecologically Viable Land Bank: Create a central land bank of non-forest/degraded forest lands near existing forests to enhance ecological connectivity, reduce edge effects, improve survival rates, and resolve land availability issues. 
• Fund Utilisation & Transparency: Ensure timely fund release, adhere to annual plans with clear timelines, strengthen audits, and mandate third-party monitoring and public disclosure. 
• Biodiverse, Community-Led Approach: Shift from monocultures to native, multi-species plantations. Involve tribals and forest dwellers as per the Forest Rights Act, 2006 to enhance biodiversity, prevent greenwashing, and ensure socio-ecological justice. 
• Legal & Policy Reforms: Amend the CAF Act to set time-bound afforestation targets, mandate ecological equivalence, and enforce penalties for violations.  
  • Link forest clearances to ecosystem service restoration, not just land area. Align CAMPA with IPCC guidelines, India’s NDCs, and the Paris Agreement to avoid net ecological loss.
    

Drishti Mains Question:

What is the role of the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority (CAMPA) in India’s forest governance? Critically examine its effectiveness in achieving environmental and developmental balance.

 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

Q. Consider the following statements: (2019)

1. As per law, the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Management and Planning Authority exists at both National and State levels. 
2. People’s participation is mandatory in the compensatory afforestation programmes carried out under the Compensatory Afforestation Fund Act, 2016. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 only 
(b) 2 only 
(c) Both 1 and 2 
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 

Ans: (a)

NHAI Sustainability Report 2023-24

Source: PIB 

Why in News? 

The National Highways Authority of India (NHAI) released its second Sustainability Report for FY 2023–24, detailing significant achievements in integrating Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) principles into its operations.  

• The report aligns with India's Mission LiFE, and the principles of a circular economy. 

What are the Major Environmental Sustainability Initiatives Undertaken by NHAI? 

• Decoupling Growth from Emissions: Despite a 20% increase in National Highway construction, NHAI successfully reduced its GHG emission intensity from 1.0 to 0.8 MTCO₂e/km, demonstrating a clear decoupling of construction growth from environmental harm. 
• Promoting Circular Economy: In FY 2023–24, NHAI utilized over 631 lakh metric tonnes of recycled and reused materials, including fly ash, plastic waste, and reclaimed asphalt, significantly reducing construction waste and enhancing resource efficiency. 
• Water Body Rejuvenation: Under the Amrit Sarovar Mission, NHAI has developed 467 water bodies across the country.  
  • These efforts have also resulted in the recovery of 2.4 crore cubic meters of soil, leading to estimated cost savings of ₹16,690 crore in construction material. 
• Reduced Water Use Intensity: The report notes a 74% reduction in water use intensity in water-stressed regions, reflecting NHAI’s commitment to water conservation in infrastructure development. 

How Infrastructure Development can be Synergised with Environmental Sustainability?  

• Adopt Green Infrastructure Principles: Design infrastructure that works with nature — e.g., permeable pavements, green roofs, bio-swales, urban forests. 
• Integrate EIA at Planning Stage: Make Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) not just a formality but a decision-making tool. 
  • Use Strategic Environmental Assessments (that includes social assessment) for multi-project or regional scale planning. 
• Use Sustainable Materials & Promote Circular Economy: Use recycled, low-carbon, and locally sourced materials in construction. 
  • Encourage reuse of waste- fly ash, plastic, construction & demolition (C&D) waste. 
• Green Cover and Compensatory Afforestation: Integrate tree plantation, green belts, and ecological buffers into highways, rail, and urban plans. 
  • Follow the “Tree First, Road Next” approach in sensitive zones. 
• Water Conservation and Management: Design stormwater harvesting, greywater reuse, and water-efficient systems in urban and transport projects. Rejuvenate local water bodies. 
• Wildlife and Biodiversity Considerations: Build eco-bridges, underpasses, and animal corridors in linear infrastructure (roads, rails). 
• Low-Carbon Transport Infrastructure: Promote mass rapid transit systems, NMT (non-motorized transport), and EV-ready highways. 
  • Develop more dedicated freight corridors that reduce emissions and congestion. 
• Policy Alignment and ESG Compliance: Align infrastructure projects with Mission LiFE, National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC), and Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). 
  • Encourage Environmental, Social and Governance (ESG) reporting by public sector agencies.  

National Highways Authority of India 

• NHAI is a statutory body under the Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, responsible for the development, maintenance, and management of National Highways in India. 
• It was established under the NHAI Act, 1988 and became operational in February 1995. 
  • The authority is headed by a Chairman and includes up to five full-time and four part-time members, appointed by the Central Government. 

Conclusion 

NHAI’s Sustainability Report reflects a strategic shift from "build fast" to "build green", integrating climate consciousness with infrastructure expansion. India must walk the path of 'concrete with conscience', where every highway, bridge, or port is not just an economic asset but also an ecological responsibility. 

Related Keywords for Mains:  

• Infrastructure & Sustainability: 
  • “Highways to Carbon Sinks” – Turning transport corridors into ecological assets. 
  • “Bricks, Bytes, and Biodiversity” – Merging construction, digital tools, and ecology. 
  • “Measure Emissions, Manage Growth” – Emission intensity as a planning tool. 
• ESG & Circular Economy: 
  • “Recycle, Reuse, Rebuild” – Core pillars of sustainable construction. 
  • “Waste is Wealth in Motion” – Turning construction waste into assets. 
  • “Carbon Cost Matters as Much as Capital Cost” – ESG as a budgeting lens. 

Drishti Mains Question: 

"Infrastructure development is often seen as a trade-off with environmental sustainability. In the Indian context, how can sustainable infrastructure be achieved without compromising the needs of economic growth and ecological preservation?"

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

Q. “Investment in infrastructure is essential for more rapid and inclusive economic growth.” Discuss in the light of India’s experience. (2021)

Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules, 2025

Source: TH 

Why in News?

The Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC) has notified the Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules, 2025 under the Environment Protection Act (EPA), 1986.  

• These rules legally codify the procedure for identifying, assessing, and remediating chemically contaminated sites. 

What are the Key Provisions of the Environment Protection (Management of Contaminated Sites) Rules, 2025? 

• Definition of Contaminated Sites: Contaminated sites refer to locations with historical hazardous waste dumping, leading to soil, groundwater, and surface water contamination. 
  • Examples include old landfills, spill sites, and chemical waste dumps. 
• Identification and Reporting Mechanism: 
  • District Administration must submit half-yearly reports on suspected contaminated sites to the State Pollution Control Board or designated authority. 
  • State Pollution Control Boards or designated expert bodies must conduct a preliminary assessment of suspected sites within 90 days, followed by a detailed investigation in the next 90 days.  
    • If the site contains any of the 189 hazardous chemicals listed under the 2016 Hazardous Waste Rules above safe limits, it is officially declared contaminated. 
    • Names and details of such sites are to be publicised; access restrictions imposed. 
• Remediation Planning: A reference organisation (expert body) will draft a remediation plan specific to the site. 
• Liability and Cost Recovery: Polluters identified as responsible (Polluters pay principle) will bear the cost of clean-up. 
  • If polluters are untraceable or unable to pay, cost-sharing between Centre and States is mandated. 
• Criminal Liability: Any loss of life or environmental damage caused by contamination will attract penalties under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023. 
• Exclusions: These rules exclude contamination from radioactive waste, mining operations, marine oil pollution, and solid waste dumps. As each of these is already covered under separate, specific laws. 

Environment (Protection) Act, 1986

• The EPA, 1986 was passed by the Parliament in the wake of the Bhopal Gas Tragedy, highlighting the urgent need for a comprehensive law to protect the environment and public health.  
• EPA enacted under Article 253 of the Constitution (empowers the Parliament to enact laws for implementing international agreements) to fulfill international commitments made at the 1972 Stockholm Conference. 
• The Act empowers the Central Government to prevent, control, and respond to environmental pollution. It allows the Centre to set standards, regulate emissions, shut down polluting industries, and control essential services.  
• Article 48A directs the State to protect the environment, forests, and wildlife, while Article 51A makes it the duty of every citizen of India to protect and improve the natural environment. 

 

UPSC Civil Services Exam, Previous Year Questions (PYQ) 

Prelims

Q. Consider the following statements: (2019)

The Environment Protection Act, 1986 empowers the Government of India to: 

1. State the requirement of public participation in the process of environmental protection, and the procedure and manner in which it is sought. 
2. Lay down the standards for emission or discharge of environmental pollutants from various sources. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

(a) 1 only 
(b) 2 only 
(c) Both 1 and 2 
(d) Neither 1 nor 2 

Ans: (b)

Project 17A Frigate Himgiri

Source: PIB 

Himgiri (Yard 3022), the 3rd ship of the Nilgiri Class (Project 17A), built at Garden Reach Shipbuilders & Engineers (GRSE), Kolkata, was delivered to the Indian Navy, marking a key milestone in India’s journey towards self-reliance in warship design and construction. 

• Himgiri is a modernized version of the former INS Himgiri, a Leander-class frigate, which was decommissioned in 2005 after 30 years of service. 
  • Himgiri is equipped with BrahMos anti-ship and land-attack cruise missiles, along with Barak 8 anti-aircraft missiles, representing a major leap in naval strike and defensive capabilities. 
  • Earlier, INS Nilgiri and INS Udaygiri were launched under Project 17A.  
• Project 17A (P17A) frigates are multi-mission platforms designed to address current and future maritime challenges.  
  • P17A ships feature advanced weapons and sensors over the P17 (Shivalik) class, including supersonic surface-to-surface missiles, medium-range surface-to-air missiles, and rapid-fire Close-in Weapon Systems. 
  • P17A are equipped with a Combined Diesel or Gas propulsion system that drives a Controllable Pitch Propeller (CPP) on each shaft, along with a state-of-the-art Integrated Platform Management System (IPMS). 
  • Project 17A frigates mark a major leap in indigenous ship design, stealth, and combat capability. 

Read more: INS Nilgiri 

Project 17A and INS Taragiri 

Hot Springs & Origin of Life

Source: DST 

Scientists in Puga Valley hot springs, Ladakh, discovered travertine (calcium carbonate) deposits capable of trapping organic molecules like amino acids, fatty acids, and formamide. 

• This supports theories that life may have originated in geothermal environments, similar to early Earth or Mars.  
• The study used techniques like GC-MS-MS, Raman Spectroscopy, X-ray Diffraction (XRD), Infrared Spectroscopy (IR), Stable Isotope Geochemistry and microscopy. 
• It challenges earlier silica-based origin theories by showing calcium carbonate can preserve biosignatures, acting as a prebiotic reactor. 
• Findings may aid ISRO’s astrobiological missions by guiding biosignature detection on Mars-like terrains. 

Hot Springs & Geysers 

• Hot springs are geothermal features where heated groundwater surfaces in tectonically active areas.  Eg: Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh). 
  • Puga Valley, in southeastern Ladakh, is known for geothermal activity, sulphur springs, and energy potential. 
• Geysers are volcanic geothermal features that erupt hot water and steam when groundwater is superheated by magma in underground cavities. Eg: Yellowstone National Park (USA). 

Hot Springs	Geysers
In a hot spring the heated water flows out continuously without any eruptive activity.   Such hot springs are common in Yellowstone Park US; Badrinath and Manikaran in India.   These hot springs are very healthy for bathing.	In a geyser, hot water and steam are thrown out at intervals in the form of a fountain.   There is an Old Faithful geyser which erupts out exactly in one hour intervals; these are about 100 geysers.

Read More: Geothermal Power in Ladakh 

RBI Tightens Investment Norms in AIFs

Source: TH 

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has new norms to limit investment by regulated entities (REs) in Alternative Investment Fund (AIF) schemes to prevent evergreening, reduce concentration risk, and improve financial risk management. 

• Investment Cap: Total investment by all REs in an AIF scheme is restricted to 20% of the corpus. No RE can invest more than 10% of an AIF scheme's corpus. 
  • If a RE invests over 5% in an AIF that has downstream exposure to its own debtor (excluding equity), then it must set aside the total loan amount of that investment as a safety net. 
• Regulated Entities Covered: Commercial banks, Regional Rural Banks (RRBs), urban and co-operative banks, all-India financial institutions, and Non-Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs), including housing finance companies. 
• Alignment with SEBI: The new rules bring RBI norms in line with Securities and Exchange Board of India (SEBI) standards on due diligence and investment practices. 
• Alternative Investment Fund: An AIF is a privately pooled investment vehicle in India that collects funds from sophisticated Indian or foreign investors to invest as per a defined policy for their benefit. 
  • AIFs exclude funds regulated under SEBI’s Mutual Fund or Collective Investment Schemes rules 1999.  
    • Exemptions also apply to family trusts, employee welfare/gratuity trusts, and holding companies under the Companies Act, 1956. 
• Categories of AIF:  

Read more: Ubharte Sitaare Alternative Investment Fund