Mains Practice Questions

Introduction:

The 1920s represented a transformative phase in India’s freedom struggle. What began as a predominantly Congress-led, Gandhian mass movement gradually evolved into a broad, multi-ideological nationalist upsurge. The withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement (1922), global ideological currents, British repressive policies, and rising socio-economic discontent catalysed the emergence of diverse political visions. These currents fundamentally reshaped the nature, direction, and depth of India’s struggle for freedom.

Body :

Gandhian Mass Politics: Expanding the Base of Nationalism

• Gandhi’s leadership turned the struggle into a mass-based, participatory movement.
• Emphasis on Satyagraha, non-violence, Swadeshi, Khadi, and constructive programmes mobilised peasants, workers, women, and the middle classes.
• Examples:
  • Non-Cooperation Movement (1920–22) unified Indians across caste and region.
  • Bardoli Satyagraha (1928) showcased disciplined non-violent resistance.
• This Gandhian stream remained the dominant axis of the national struggle but no longer the only one.

Rise of Revolutionary Nationalism: Youthful Militancy

• Disillusionment after the abrupt withdrawal of Non-Cooperation pushed youth toward militant action.
• The Hindustan Republican Association (HRA) and later HSRA promoted armed struggle, inspired by Irish and Russian examples.
• Examples:
  • Kakori Conspiracy (1925)
  • HSRA’s socialist turn under Bhagat Singh (manifesto of 1928)
• Revolutionary nationalism injected ideological radicalism, challenging both colonialism and social inequities.

Growth of Socialist and Leftist Currents

• Influenced by the Russian Revolution (1917) and economic distress.
• Spread of Marxist ideas among students, trade unions, and intellectuals.
• Examples:
  • AITUC (1920) led labour struggles in Bombay and Bengal.
• Leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru and Subhas Chandra Bose added a socialist vision within Congress, strengthening anti-imperialist discourse.

Constitutionalism and Liberal Politics

• The formation of the Swaraj Party (1923) by C.R. Das and Motilal Nehru marked the emergence of a constitutionalist stream.
• They advocated Council entry to expose colonial policies from within.
• Their debates, budgetary obstruction, and critiques of bureaucracy enriched political consciousness and challenged British legitimacy.

Communal and Identity-Based Currents

• The decade saw the rise of Hindu Mahasabha, Muslim League, and communal mobilisations.
• British policies (separate electorates, divide-and-rule) deepened religious politics.
• These developments forced nationalists to re-evaluate issues of minority representation and national unity.

Dalit Assertion and Social Justice Movements

• Dr. B.R. Ambedkar foregrounded caste discrimination, political representation, and social reform.
• Bahishkrit Hitakarini Sabha (1924) and temple-entry movements expanded the meaning of nationalism to include social equality.

Peasant and Worker Mobilisations

• Region-specific movements in UP, Gujarat, Bengal, and Andhra connected nationalism to everyday socio-economic struggles.
• Strengthened class consciousness and deepened grassroots participation.

Conclusion:

Thus, the 1920s marked the ideological diversification of India’s freedom struggle—from Gandhian mass politics and revolutionary militancy to socialist radicalism, constitutionalism, communal politics, and social justice movements. This plurality not only broadened participation but also transformed nationalism into a complex, socially rooted, and ideologically vibrant movement, laying the foundation for the decisive mass struggles of the 1930s and beyond.