Rebuilding India’s Foundational Learning Pyramid

• 26 Nov 2025

This editorial is based on “Bridging India’s numeracy gap,” which was published in The Hindu on 25/11/2025. The article highlights that India’s persistent numeracy gap, despite improvements in literacy under the National Education Policy 2020 and the NIPUN Bharat Mission, demands urgent, multi-pronged interventions that extend beyond early grades to ensure foundational and higher-level math skills essential for academic success, employability, and equitable growth.

For Prelims: Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN), NIPUN Bharat Mission, ASER 2024 Report, Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan, PM SHRI Schools, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao 

For Mains: Current Status of Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) in India, Key Challenges Affecting the Progress of Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) in India, Major Schemes Related to the Primary Education Sector in India

India’s numeracy gap, despite progress in literacy under the National Education Policy 2020 and the NIPUN Bharat Mission, remains a critical educational challenge due to the cumulative nature of math learning, ineffective teaching methods, and the disconnect between classroom and real-life skills, requiring urgent extension of interventions beyond early grades to upper primary levels and inclusion of higher-level numeracy skills for equitable academic and economic outcomes.

What is the Current Status of Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) in India?  

• About: Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) in India refers to the essential skills of reading, writing, and basic arithmetic that every child should acquire by the end of Grade 3 to ensure successful future learning.  
  • It forms the bedrock of all educational development and lifelong learning, enabling students to confidently engage with more complex subjects and real-world challenges. 
• Key Aspects of FLN: 
  • Foundational Literacy involves not just the ability to read and write at a basic level but also the comprehension of simple texts, enabling children to use reading and writing for everyday purposes. 
  • Foundational Numeracy covers basic number sense, the ability to perform simple arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division, and understanding fundamental mathematical concepts such as place value and fractions. 
  • FLN emphasizes learning outcomes rather than inputs, prioritizing whether students truly acquire these critical skills regardless of schooling duration or syllabus coverage. 
  • Instruction aligned to children’s actual learning levels, continuous assessment, and remedial support are pivotal components. 
• Relevance of FLN : 
  • Critical for Academic Progression: Students without strong foundational skills struggle to grasp advanced topics in later grades, causing poor performance and high dropout rates. 
  • Drives Equitable Education: Early skill acquisition narrows disparities linked to socioeconomic status, geography, and language barriers, fostering inclusion. 
  • Underpins Economic Empowerment: Literacy and numeracy skills improve employability and enable individuals to participate fully in economic and social life. 
    • The NIPUN Bharat Mission (2021) reflects national commitment, aiming to achieve universal FLN by 2026-27. 
• Current Status:  
  • The ASER 2024 report found that only 20.5% of Grade 3 children can read a Grade 2-level text, and only 25.9% can perform simple subtraction. 
  • The ASER 2024 report shows that while 48.7% of Class 5 students can read fluently, only 30.7% can solve a basic division problem, reflecting an 18 percentage point gap. No State reports higher numeracy than literacy outcomes. 
  • The Parakh Rashtriya Survekshan 2024 highlights successful state-level interventions extending FLN focus to middle grades, improving numeracy outcomes (e.g., Dadra and Nagar Haveli). 
  • Pedagogical shifts toward activity-based, level-appropriate teaching are being implemented but require greater scale and integration. 

What are the Key Challenges Affecting the Progress of Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) in India? 

• Widespread Learning Deficits Despite Near-Universal Enrollment: India boasts over 95% gross enrollment in elementary education. However, enrollment has not translated into learning gains,  
  • According to the ASER 2024 report, more than half of Grade 3 students cannot read Grade 2-level text fluently or perform simple subtraction.  
  • This stark gap reveals a deep "learning crisis" where children are physically in school but failing to acquire basic skills essential for further learning.  
  • For example, only about 20.5% of Grade 3 children achieve basic reading fluency, indicating urgent need for pedagogical reforms and learning support(ASER 2022) 
• Pronounced Numeracy-Literacy Divide: While nearly half (48.7%) of Class 5 students read fluently, only 30.7% can solve basic division problems, reflecting a significant 18 percentage-point gap (ASER 2024).  
  • No State reports higher numeracy than literacy, highlighting deficiencies in teaching and learning math concepts.  
  • This gap implies many children can decode text but struggle with numerical reasoning, critical for cognitive development, academic success, and life skills.  
  • It underscores the need for numeracy-targeted interventions and curriculum adjustments incorporating FLN+ skills like fractions and decimals. 
• Hierarchical, Cumulative Nature of Mathematics Learning: Math skills build sequentially—missing foundational concepts such as place value limits access to addition, decimals, and higher math. 
  • This leads to compounding learning gaps, fostering math anxiety and disengagement.  
  • The problem intensifies over time, with many adolescents failing key subjects like math and science in board exams, or dropping out early.  
  • For instance, a study notes that about 70% of Class 5 students struggle with basic division, obstructing progression to higher skills and opportunities. 
• Limited Expansion of FLN Interventions Beyond Early Primary Grades: Current FLN programs like the NIPUN Bharat Mission primarily target Grades 1-3, but evidence calls for expansion through Grade 8.  
  • Middle-grade interventions in regions like Dadra and Nagar Haveli demonstrated sharp improvements in learning outcomes (Parakh Rashtriya Survekshan 2024).  
  • Without extending FLN+ coverage, many children lose crucial remediation years post-primary education, perpetuating skill deficits affecting lifetime employability and economic participation. 
• Socio-Economic and Language Barriers Compound Learning Challenges: Children from impoverished households face multiple disadvantages, malnutrition, inadequate stimulation, limited books, and harsh learning environments. 
  • A critical barrier is language mismatch between home language and school medium, which hampers comprehension and engagement.  
  • These inequities deeply impact FLN acquisition, perpetuating educational disparities and social inequality. 
  • For example, stunting affects 35.5% of Indian children, linking poor nutrition with cognitive deficits and lower school readiness. 
• Inadequate School Infrastructure and Teaching Resources: Many schools, particularly in rural areas, lack basic infrastructure like toilets, safe drinking water, learning materials, and remedial programs.  
  • High pupil-teacher ratios and untrained teachers impede individualized, level-appropriate instruction essential for FLN. 
  • Without child-friendly environments and adequate support, students struggle to engage and progress.  
  • Research highlights that improving school infrastructure and teacher training is fundamental for effective FLN delivery. 
• Covid-19 Pandemic-Induced Learning Loss and Digital Divide: COVID-19 disrupted schooling for months, forcing remote learning. However, lack of digital access and resources disproportionately affected vulnerable children, worsening pre-existing learning gaps.  
  • The World Bank warns that global learning losses from the pandemic may reverse decades of progress.  
  • In India, many children missed foundational years of schooling, compounding challenges in literacy and numeracy acquisition, with long-term repercussions on educational equity and workforce readiness. 
• Disconnect Between Classroom Learning and Real-Life Application: Studies, such as those by the Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab, reveal students proficient in classroom assessments often struggle with practical application, while children engaged in real-life economic activities lack formal numeracy skills.  
  • This disconnect restricts functional literacy and numeracy, limiting employability and life skills.  
  • Embedding real-world problem-solving in pedagogy could bridge this gap, making FLN more applicable and engaging. 
• Rigid Pedagogical Approaches and Assessment Systems: Traditional, syllabus-centric teaching often advances without consolidating foundational understanding.  
  • Remedial instruction, activity-based, and level-matched pedagogy remain fragmented and underutilized. Current assessments emphasize rote learning rather than conceptual clarity and application.  
  • According to practitioners like Pratham's Teaching at the Right Level (TaRL), personalized, competency-driven instruction significantly improves FLN but requires systemic adoption and policy support.

What are the Major Schemes Related to the Primary Education Sector in India? 

• Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan: An integrated scheme covering pre-primary to senior secondary education, focusing on universal access, infrastructure development, quality, equity, and digital learning. 
• NIPUN Bharat Mission: A national initiative aiming to ensure universal foundational literacy and numeracy (FLN) for all children by the end of Grade 3 by 2026-27, implementing play-based and multilingual pedagogies. 
• PM SHRI Schools (Pradhan Mantri Schools for Rising India): A scheme to transform over 14,500 schools into model NEP-aligned institutions with enhanced infrastructure, technology integration, and value-based education. 
• PM POSHAN (Mid-Day Meal Scheme): Provides nutritious meals to over 11 crore children in government and aided schools, improving enrollment, retention, and learning effectiveness. 
• Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan (SSA): A flagship program to universalize elementary education with a focus on enrollment, retention, infrastructure, and inclusive education for marginalized groups. 
• Beti Bachao Beti Padhao: Promotes the education of girls and gender equity in schools, with special emphasis on enrollment and retention of girls. 
• Kasturba Gandhi Balika Vidyalaya (KGBV): Residential schools for girls from disadvantaged communities to improve access and quality of education. 
• Right to Education (RTE) Act: Legal provision guaranteeing free and compulsory education for children aged 6–14 years, ensuring access and learning rights. 
• National Means-cum-Merit Scholarship Scheme: Provides scholarships to meritorious students from economically weaker sections to encourage continued education beyond elementary levels.

What Policy Measures are Necessary for India to Address the Foundational Literacy and Numeracy Gaps Effectively? 

• Scale and Tailor the NIPUN Bharat Mission with Real-Time Monitoring: India must accelerate scaling NIPUN Bharat, aimed at universal FLN by 2026-27, with customized state-level action plans reflecting linguistic and socio-economic diversity. 
  • Parallelly, employ international tools like the Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA) and Early Grade Mathematics Assessment (EGMA) frameworks, used worldwide, for real-time diagnostics to identify learning gaps and guide intervention precisely.  
  • These assessments enable iterative curriculum adjustment, a best practice recommended by UNESCO and UNICEF. 
• Extend FLN Interventions Beyond Early Primary Grades: Based on ASER data revealing persistent numeracy deficits in Grade 5 and beyond, India should expand remedial FLN+ programs to at least Grade 8, ensuring mastery of advanced skills such as fractions and percentages.  
  • Countries like Finland and Singapore emphasize continuous skill build-up integrated over years, not isolated early interventions, underscoring the importance of longitudinal learning support. 
• Invest Robustly in Teacher Training and Support: Global evidence highlights teacher quality as pivotal for FLN success.  
  • India should institutionalize continuous professional development focusing on child-centered, activity-based pedagogy and multilingual education, akin to Canada and New Zealand’s teacher mentoring models. 
  • Training should include use of digital tools to personalize learning and enhance engagement, as demonstrated by Australia’s blended learning approaches. 
• Implement Mother Tongue Instruction and Multilingual Pedagogy: Empirical studies affirm early education in mother tongue facilitates cognitive development and retention. 
  • India’s alignment with this NEP 2020 directive can draw inspiration from countries like South Africa and Uganda that deploy Multilingual Education (MLE) models effectively for marginalized communities, improving literacy outcomes and reducing dropouts. 
• Embed Experiential and Real-Life Learning Approaches: India should mainstream experiential learning methodologies from global practices such as Finland’s exploratory learning and Japan’s “learning by doing.”  
  • Incorporating peer-to-peer learning, storytelling, and real-world problem solving increases relevance, motivation, and application for foundational skills, as per UNESCO guidelines. 
• Strengthen Early Childhood Education and School Readiness: NEP’s emphasis on ages 3-6 aligns with neuroscience insights underscoring early brain development.  
  • India must scale quality Anganwadi and preschool programs embedding play-based, socio-emotional and foundational skill development.  
  • Brazil’s Criança Feliz program exemplifies coordinated community and home-based early learning interventions that boost school readiness. 
• Address Socio-Economic Barriers through Integrated Support Systems: India should converge nutrition (Mid-Day Meal Scheme), health, and education policies to mitigate adverse socio-economic impacts on learning.  
  • International cross-sectoral models, such as Mexico’s Oportunidades conditional cash transfer program, show gains in school attendance and performance by linking social welfare with education.  
  • Strengthened community engagement and parental education are vital to sustain learning outside classrooms. 

Conclusion:

As Nelson Mandela said, “Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world.” To fulfill this vision, India must strengthen state-specific FLN plans, expand interventions beyond Grade 3, enhance teacher training, promote mother tongue instruction, and integrate experiential learning. Sustained investments in early childhood education and socio-economic support systems will ensure inclusive, equitable, and quality foundational learning—paving the way for a truly developed and literate India. 

Drishti Mains Question:

Discuss the key challenges to foundational literacy and numeracy (FLN) in India.What measures can address them?

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) 

Q. What is Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) in India?
FLN refers to basic skills in reading, writing, and arithmetic that children must acquire by Grade 3, forming the bedrock of lifelong learning and academic progression.

Q. Why does India face a persistent numeracy gap despite progress in literacy?
The numeracy gap arises due to the cumulative nature of math learning, ineffective pedagogy, and weak linkages between classroom teaching and real-life application.

Q. What major challenges hinder FLN progress in India?
Key challenges include learning deficits, socio-economic barriers, language mismatch, inadequate teacher capacity, weak school infrastructure, rigid pedagogy, and pandemic-induced learning disruptions.

Q. Which key schemes support foundational learning in India?
Schemes include NIPUN Bharat, Samagra Shiksha, PM SHRI Schools, PM POSHAN, RTE Act, KGBV, Beti Bachao Beti Padhao, TaRL, and the National Means-cum-Merit Scholarship.

Q. What policy measures can strengthen FLN outcomes in India?
Measures include scaling NIPUN Bharat, extending FLN interventions to higher grades, strengthening teacher training, promoting mother tongue instruction, integrating experiential learning, improving early childhood education, and addressing socio-economic barriers.

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)  

Prelims

Q. What is the aim of the programme ‘Unnat Bharat Abhiyan’? (2017)

(a) Achieving 100% literacy by promoting collaboration between voluntary organisations and the government's education system and local communities. 

(b) Connecting institutions of higher education with local communities to address development challenges through appropriate technologies. 

(c) Strengthening India’s scientific research institutions in order to make India a scientific and technological power. 

(d) Developing human capital by allocating special funds for health care and education of rural and urban poor, and organising skill development programmes and vocational training for them. 

Ans: (b)

Q. Consider the following statements: (2018)

1. As per the Right to Education (RTE) Act, to be eligible for appointment as a teacher in a State, a person would be required to possess the minimum qualification laid down by the concerned State Council of Teacher Education. 
2. As per the RTE Act, for teaching primary classes a candidate is required to pass a Teacher Eligibility Test conducted in accordance with the National Council of Teacher Education guidelines. 
3. In India, more than 90% of teacher education institutions are directly under the State Governments. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct? 

(a) 1 and 2 
(b) 2 only 
(c) 1 and 3 
(d) 3 only 

Ans: (b)

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Mains

Q. “Earn while you learn" scheme needs to be strengthened to make vocational education and skill training meaningful.” Comment. (2021) 

Q. National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 is in conformity with Sustainable Development Goal-4 (SDG-4). It intends to restructure and reorient India’s education system. Critically examine. (2020)