India’s Deepening Groundwater Crisis

• 20 Nov 2025

This editorial is based on “Hidden cost of polluted groundwater” which was published in The Hindu on 20/11/2025. The article brings into picture the hidden groundwater crisis in India, where one-fifth of tested samples across 440 districts are contaminated. With 600 million people dependent on groundwater, this rising pollution and over-extraction threaten irreversible health and agricultural losses. 

For Prelims: Groundwater contamination, Annual Groundwater Recharge , Dynamic Groundwater Resource Assessment Report, MSP for paddy and sugarcane, NAQUIM project, Atal Bhujal Yojana,  6th Minor Irrigation Census, Jal Shakti Abhiyan 

For Mains: Current Status of India's Groundwater Usage, Key Indian Government Initiatives Related to Groundwater Management, Key Factors Exacerbating Groundwater Depletion in India. 

India faces a silent crisis beneath its surface: groundwater contamination affecting nearly one-fifth of tested samples across 440 districts, with uranium, fluoride, nitrate, and arsenic exceeding safe limits. This invisible threat costs the nation nearly $80 billion annually-around 6% of GDP-through health expenses, lost productivity, and agricultural decline. With 600 million Indians dependent on groundwater for drinking and irrigation, the crisis disproportionately impacts the poor who cannot afford alternatives. Reckless over-extraction, already exceeding sustainable limits by 1.5 times in states like Punjab, compounds the problem by forcing deeper drilling that worsens water quality. Unlike scarcity, contamination is often irreversible, making immediate action not just urgent but essential to prevent a national catastrophe.

What is the Current Status of India's Groundwater Usage?

• The Annual Groundwater Extraction stands at 245.64 BCM (Dynamic Ground Water Resources assessment 2024). This gives a national average Stage of Extraction of approximately 60.47%, which suggests that at the aggregate level, extraction remains within the annual replenishment capacity. 
  
  • Overall Water Budget and Extraction Rate: The nation’s Total Annual Groundwater Recharge is assessed at 446.90 Billion Cubic Meters (BCM), demonstrating a consistent upward trend since 2017 due to significant government and community-led conservation efforts like the creation of water conservation structures. 
    • However, this national average masks severe localized crises.
• Sectoral Dominance and Geographical Hotspots: The agricultural sector remains the dominant consumer, accounting for approximately 87% of the total annual groundwater draft, which makes it the single largest driver of the crisis. 
  • Groundwater hotspots are critically concentrated in the Northwestern regions, including Punjab, Haryana, Delhi, and Rajasthan, where extraction in many blocks routinely exceeds 100% of the annual replenishable resource, fueled largely by the cultivation of water-intensive crops under subsidized power. 
  • Urban centers are seeing rapid, localized depletion due to unchecked commercial and domestic extraction, leading to issues like land subsidence in megacities.

What are the Key Factors Exacerbating Groundwater Depletion in India? 

• Subsidized Agricultural Electricity: Subsidized or free electricity for agricultural pumping removes the financial disincentive for excessive water use, leading to unregulated extraction and high pump-hour intensity. This policy distortion encourages farmers to pump groundwater without limit, even for low-value crops.
  • Studies indicate that the price elasticity of groundwater extraction is around –0.18, meaning subsidies significantly increase pumping. 
  • This means that a 10% increase in the cost of electricity would reduce groundwater extraction by about 1.8%, while heavy subsidies have the opposite effect, fueling unchecked pumping.
  • The 'Groundwater: A Valuable but Diminishing Resource’ report by the standing committee on water resources under the Jal Shakti ministry observed that subsidised electricity provided by state governments had led to over-extraction of groundwater as farmers used it extensively to run pumps that draw up groundwater.
• High Minimum Support Price (MSP) for Water-Intensive Crops: Government procurement policies, particularly the MSP for paddy and sugarcane, incentivize farmers to cultivate water-guzzling crops even in arid zones. 
  • This policy acts as a perverse incentive, effectively subsidizing water depletion by making the cultivation of unsustainable crops financially viable, thus creating an agricultural water demand that far exceeds the natural recharge capacity of these regions.
  • MSP-driven paddy cultivation in Punjab and Haryana consumes an estimated 4,000–5,000 litres of water per kilogram of rice. 
  • The recent Dynamic Groundwater Resource Assessment Report found 736 overexploited assessment units, heavily concentrated in the Indo-Gangetic basin.
• Rapid Urbanization and Industrial Demand: Unplanned urban expansion seals natural recharge areas with roads and buildings, reducing rainwater infiltration into aquifers.
  
  • The creation of "concrete jungles" prevents surface water from naturally recharging the aquifers, disrupting the hydrologic cycle essential for sustainability. 
    • Furthermore, the concentrated, high-volume pumping required to meet the demands of growing urban populations and industrial hubs creates unsustainable cones of depression, especially in peri-urban areas.
  • A recent study, “Building Damage Risk in Sinking Indian Megacities,” reports that around 878 km² of land across five major Indian cities, Delhi, Chennai, Mumbai, Kolkata, and Bengaluru, is experiencing subsidence.
• Fragmented and Weak Regulatory Framework: The root of the crisis lies in the Indian Easements Act, 1882, which ties groundwater rights directly to land ownership.
  • This archaic law grants landowners the absolute right to extract water beneath their property, treating it as a private asset rather than a shared "Common Pool Resource."
  • Despite CGWA guidelines, enforcement is weak and often limited only to officially notified “over-exploited” areas.
  • Only about 14% of the overexploited blocks in the country are currently notified. The NAQUIM project, despite mapping progress, struggles to translate aquifer-level assessments into enforceable local groundwater management plans.
• Climate Change and Erratic Monsoon Patterns: Climate change has increased rainfall variability, with intense but short-duration events that reduce infiltration and increase runoff, lowering aquifer recharge.
  • The Southwest Monsoon, which accounts for about 60% of India’s groundwater recharge, recorded a 5.6% rainfall deficit in 2023.
  • India's groundwater depletion rate could triple by 2080 due to farmers' adaptation to warming climate, threatening food & water security.
• Lack of Granular, Real-Time Monitoring and Data Access: The sheer scale of groundwater extraction is not adequately captured by the current monitoring network, which relies on a mix of observation wells, many of which are non-real-time. 
  
  • This lack of granular, easily accessible, and high-frequency data prevents timely and evidence-based local interventions in critically stressed areas.
    • Most groundwater extraction occurs through private tube wells that remain unmonitored.
  • Crucially, the 6th Minor Irrigation Census (2023) reported over 21.93 million groundwater structures (dug wells, tube wells), with 98.3% of these schemes under private ownership and therefore unmonitored for extraction volume.

What are the Key Indian Government Initiatives Related to Groundwater Management?

• Atal Bhujal Yojana: This is a Central Sector Scheme launched in 2019 (extended till March 2026) with World Bank funding, targeting improved Groundwater Management in 8,203 water-stressed Gram Panchayats across seven states.
• Jal Shakti Abhiyan (JSA)- Catch the Rain (CTR): Launched in 2019 and continued annually, this is a time-bound, mission-mode campaign with the slogan "Catch the Rain, Where it Falls, When it Falls". 
  • It aims for convergence of schemes to create a mass movement (Jan Andolan) for water conservation.
• National Aquifer Mapping and Management Program (NAQUIM): Implemented by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB), the primary goal is the scientific delineation and mapping of aquifers at a micro-level across the country.
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY): While an irrigation scheme, it plays a direct role in groundwater demand management with the motto "More Crop Per Drop".
• AMRUT 2.0 (Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation): A mission launched in 2021 to make cities "water-secure" and "self-reliant" through universal water supply and better sewage management.

What Steps can India take to Ensure Sustainable and Effective Groundwater Management?

• Decoupling MSP and Electricity Subsidies from Water Use: Implement a direct benefit transfer (DBT) scheme for power subsidies, credited directly to farmer bank accounts, and simultaneously mandate the installation of smart meters or limit free supply hours to achieve quantifiable power rationing. 
  • Complement this with a revised MSP structure that incentivizes crop diversification towards millets, pulses, and oilseeds in water-stressed regions, making unsustainable crops financially unattractive. 
  • This structural change shifts the focus from water-intensive farm output to economic water efficiency.
  • Explore shifting support from price-based subsidies (MSP) to income-based support (PM-KISAN variants) conditioned on adopting water-saving practices.
• Institutionalizing Aquifer-Based Governance: Formally sever the legal link between land ownership and groundwater rights, positioning the state as the public trustee of this shared resource, with management authority devolved to Panchayat/Gram Sabha-level Water User Associations (WUAs).
  • These WUAs, guided by the National Aquifer Mapping (NAQUIM) data, should be legally empowered to create and enforce Aquifer Management Plans and locally relevant rules for well spacing and volumetric extraction limits. 
  • This ensures management is hydro-geologically sound and socially legitimate.
• Deployment of Real-Time IoT Monitoring and AI Analytics: Establish a high-density network of Internet of Things (IoT)-enabled piezometers and digital flow meters across all notified blocks, transmitting real-time groundwater level and extraction data to a unified 'Bhu-Neer' Digital Platform that was launched in 2024. 
  • Employ Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine Learning (ML) models to forecast aquifer stress, detect illegal extraction patterns, and generate automated, hyper-local advisory bulletins for farmers, transitioning the monitoring system from reactive assessment to predictive, data-driven governance.
• Mandating Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM): Enforce strict compliance with Model Building Bye-Laws (MBBL) to mandate decentralized Rainwater Harvesting (RWH) and Artificial Recharge Structures (ARS) for every new urban development, and require the rejuvenation of traditional urban water bodies (tanks, lakes). 
  • Crucially, India needs to pass legislation to make the use of treated wastewater compulsory for all non-potable purposes in the industrial, construction, and public amenity sectors, promoting a circular water economy in cities.
  • Deployment of Community Water Purification Plants (CWPPs) in arsenic/fluoride affected belts and blending surface water with groundwater to dilute toxicity (conjunctive use).
• Financializing Groundwater Recharge as a Public Good: Introduce a Groundwater Security Levy or fee on industrial and commercial high-volume extractors, with the revenue directly hypothecated to an Aquifer Recharge Fund managed at the district level. 
  • This fund should provide performance-linked incentives to Gram Panchayats and farmers for constructing and maintaining effective Water Conservation Structures (WCS) and for adopting drought-resistant cropping systems, creating a sustainable local financing loop.
• Promoting Pressurized Micro-Irrigation and Precision Farming: Launch an intensified, mission-mode scheme to achieve 100% adoption of drip and sprinkler irrigation in all over-exploited and critical blocks within a defined timeframe, potentially linking it to the continuation of agricultural power benefits. 
  • This must be complemented by precision agriculture techniques like soil moisture sensors and remote sensing for contextual water scheduling, maximizing crop-per-drop productivity and drastically reducing withdrawal volumes.
• Capacity Building for Hydrogeological Literacy: Invest significantly in the upskilling and training of Gram Panchayat officials, local engineers, and farmers in the principles of participatory hydrogeology and Water Budgeting, using the granular data from NAQUIM and IoT networks. 
  • Develop simplified, vernacular-based Aquifer Information Systems that clearly communicate recharge/draft status, enabling local stakeholders to make informed, resource-based decisions and foster a collective stewardship ethic over their shared water resource.

Conclusion:

India’s groundwater crisis is not just an environmental challenge but a direct threat to public health, agricultural stability, and long-term economic security, striking at the core of SDG 6 (Clean Water and Sanitation). Addressing it demands scientific governance, efficient water use, and community-led stewardship aligned with SDG 12 (Responsible Consumption) and SDG 13 (Climate Action). By integrating technology, reforming incentives, and restoring natural recharge systems, India can reverse its alarming decline. 

Drishti Mains Question:

India’s groundwater crisis is no longer a problem of scarcity alone but one of contamination, over-extraction, weak governance, and climate stress. Discuss the key drivers of this crisis and evaluate the effectiveness of current policy responses. How can India move towards sustainable and equitable groundwater management? (250 words)

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question

Prelims:

Q. Which of the following can be found as pollutants in the drinking water in some parts of India? (2013)

1. Arsenic 
2. Sorbitol 
3. Fluoride 
4. Formaldehyde 
5. Uranium 

Select the correct answer using the codes given below. 

a) 1 and 3 only 

b) 2, 4 and 5 only 

c) 1, 3 and 5 only 

d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

Ans: C 

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Q. Which one of the following ancient towns is well known for its elaborate system of water harvesting and management by building a series of dams and channelizing water into connected reservoirs? (2021)

(a)Dholavira  

(b) Kalibangan  

(c) Rakhigarhi 

(d) Ropar 

Ans: (a) 

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Q. With reference to ‘Water Credit’, consider the following statements: (2021)

It puts microfinance tools to work in the water and sanitation sector. 

It is a global initiative launched under the aegis of the World Health Organization and the World Bank. 

It aims to enable the poor people to meet their water needs without depending on subsidies. 

Which of the statements given above are correct? 

(a) 1 and 2 only  

(b) 2 and 3 only  

(c) 1 and 3 only 

(d) 1, 2 and 3 

Ans: (c)

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Mains 

Q.1 What are the salient features of the Jal Shakti Abhiyan launched by the Government of India for water conservation and water security? (2020) 

Q.2 Suggest measures to improve water storage and irrigation system to make its judicious use under the depleting scenario. (2020)