2025

Answer: Maritime security refers to the protection of a nation’s maritime interests, including sea trade routes, coastal regions, and port infrastructure, from threats like piracy, terrorism, and trafficking. For India, with a 7,500 km coastline and 90% of trade by volume via the sea, it is an economic and strategic lifeline. Ensuring maritime security is essential for energy access, regional leadership, and national resilience.

Significance of Maritime Security for India’s Sea Trade

1. Trade Backbone: Over 90% of India’s international trade by volume is sea-borne, making port and route security vital.
2. Energy Access: ~85% of crude oil imports arrive via vulnerable sea lanes like the Strait of Hormuz and Strait of Malacca.
3. Strategic Location: India’s central position in the Indian Ocean Region (IOR) allows control over major east–west trade routes.
4. Blue Economy Growth: Marine sectors contribute ~$137 billion to GDP and support ~4 million coastal livelihoods. 
5. Seafood Exports: India is a major seafood exporter; security disruptions impact revenue and food chains.
6. Port Infrastructure Expansion: Major projects under Sagarmala demand heightened security for economic viability.
7. Digital Port Logistics: Increasing digitization of ports poses new cyber-security vulnerabilities.
8. Island Territories: Andaman and Nicobar Islands are key for forward maritime surveillance.
9. FDI Attraction: Secure sea trade zones attract foreign direct investment and improve Ease of Doing Business.
10. Geopolitical Influence: Security enhances India’s credibility in regional forums like QUAD and BIMSTEC.

Maritime and Coastal Security Challenges

1. Maritime Terrorism: 26/11 Mumbai attacks exposed critical flaws in coastal patrolling and intelligence sharing.
2. Piracy in IOR: Despite decline, Somali piracy and Southeast Asian maritime crimes continue to threaten commercial shipping.
3. Drug and Arms Trafficking: Coastal routes are exploited for smuggling; e.g., 2023 seizure of heroin off Gujarat coast.
4. Illegal, Unreported, and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing: Foreign trawlers violate India's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ), impacting local fishermen and marine organisms and ecosystem as well.
5. China’s Naval Expansion: The "String of Pearls" strategy includes bases in Gwadar, Djibouti, and Hambantota, encircling India.
6. Jurisdictional Overlaps: Lack of coordination among Navy, Coast Guard, and marine police reduces response efficiency.
7. Outdated Coastal Infrastructure: Many minor ports and fisheries lack surveillance and physical barriers.
8. Cyber Threats to Port Systems: Increasing digital interfaces in shipping logistics are prone to hacking and ransomware.
9. Limited Capacity of Coastal Police: Poor training, shortage of boats, and limited sea-faring skills hinder security.
10. Natural Disasters: Cyclones, tsunamis, and rising sea levels threaten coastal installations and naval bases.

Way Forward for Strengthening Maritime Security

1. National Maritime Authority: Establish a single-point command to coordinate Navy, Coast Guard, and other agencies.
2. Expansion of Coastal Radar Chain: Install radar stations across all coastal states and islands for real-time vessel tracking.
3. Automatic Identification System (AIS) Mandate: Enforce AIS on all fishing and merchant vessels to avoid unidentified entries.
4. National Command Control Communication and Intelligence (NC3I) Network: Ensure data fusion and surveillance across all coastal stakeholders.
5. SAGAR (Security and Growth for All in the Region): Strengthen regional maritime partnerships and naval diplomacy.
6. Indian Ocean Naval Symposium (IONS): Use IONS to share intelligence and conduct joint patrols in IOR.
7. Port Modernization under Sagarmala: Integrate physical and digital security features in all modern port projects.
8. Coastal Community Engagement: Train local fishermen as "eyes and ears" of the security system under Coastal Security Scheme.
9. Cybersecurity Protocols for Maritime Systems: Regular audits and IT upgrades for port infrastructure.
10. International Cooperation: Collaborate with navies of QUAD (Quadrilateral Security Dialogue) and BIMSTEC for capacity building and joint exercises.

India’s maritime security is central to its economic well-being, energy access, and geopolitical aspirations. The growing complexity of maritime threats requires a multi-pronged approach combining surveillance, institutional reforms, technological integration, and international cooperation. With a forward-looking strategy, India can secure its maritime domain and assert its leadership in the Indo-Pacific.

Introduction: 

The North-Eastern region of India, consisting of eight states (the Seven Sister States and Sikkim), is marked by its distinct geographical and cultural identity. Sharing borders with China, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar, this region holds strategic significance. However, the region has been subjected to several internal security challenges, the latest among them is violence between the Meitei and Kuki-Zo communities. Since May 2023, Manipur has witnessed violent clashes between the Meitei and Kuki-Zo communities, leading to over 250 deaths and the displacement of more than 60,000 people, fueled by ethnic, land, and political tensions.

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Major Challenges to Internal Security and Peace

• Ethnic Conflicts: Manipur has witnessed severe ethnic violence, particularly between the Meitei and Kuki communities, leading to over 250 deaths and the displacement of more than 60,000 people since May 2023.
• Insurgency and Armed Groups: Despite several peace accords, insurgent factions like the United Liberation Front of Asom (ULFA) continue to pose challenges to regional stability.
• Inter-State Border Disputes: Territorial conflicts, such as those between Assam and Nagaland, and Assam and Meghalaya, exacerbate tensions and impede peaceful co-existence.
• Rehabilitation and Integration: The reintegration of former militants and displaced populations remains a significant challenge to long-term peace.
• Illegal Migration: Primarily from Bangladesh and Myanmar-has severely disrupted demographics, triggered land encroachments, strained local infrastructure, and fueled ethnic tensions and social unrest. 
• Cross-border issues: Insurgents use safe havens in Myanmar and illicit arms/drug trade through the “Golden Triangle.”
• Infrastructure & governance deficits 

Recent Peace Accords and Initiatives (2015–2025)

• Naga Peace Accord (2015): Aimed at resolving the Naga insurgency through a framework agreement with National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) 
• Bodo Peace Accord (2020): Resulted in the creation of the Bodoland Territorial Region (BTR) with enhanced autonomy.
• Bru-Reang Agreement (2020): Facilitated the permanent settlement of Bru refugees in Tripura.
• Karbi Anglong Agreement (2021): Led to the surrender of over 1,000 militants and the establishment of the Karbi Anglong Autonomous Territorial Council.
• Adivasi Peace Accord (2022): Addressed the issues of Adivasi communities in Assam, leading to militant surrender and autonomy formation.
• Dimasa National Liberation Army (DNLA) Agreement (2023): The peace accord between  Indian government, Assam government, and the DNLA (Dimasa People's Supreme Council) agreed to end the insurgency in Dima Hasao district, with over 168–181 cadres surrendering arms and disbanding the outfit.
• Manipur Peace Agreement (2023): Aimed at ending insurgency through a peace accord with the United National Liberation Front (UNLF). It brought an essential breakthrough in Manipur’s peace process by ending decades of hostilities and signaling the return of militant actors to the democratic mainstream,
• Tripura Peace Accord (2024): Signed between the Government of India, Tripura, and insurgent groups NLFT and ATTF, it ended a 34-year insurgency with 328 cadres surrendering. The accord included a Rs. 250-crore rehabilitation and tribal development package to ensure lasting peace and stability.

Conclusion

While significant strides have been made in fostering peace through accords, challenges such as ethnic conflicts, border disputes, and rehabilitation efforts persist. Sustaining peace in the Northeast requires inclusive development, effective border management, and rehabilitation of former militants alongside strong governance reforms. The Centre’s “North East Vision 2035”, with focus on connectivity, digital inclusion, and sustainable growth, coupled with recent peace accords, provides a roadmap to transform the region into a hub of stability, prosperity, and strategic strength.

Introduction 

• India, as a responsible global actor, has aligned its developmental priorities with climate action. Through Paris Agreement commitments and subsequent updates, it balances growth, sustainability, and equity in international climate negotiations.

Paris Agreement

• The Paris Agreement is a legally binding international treaty on climate change, adopted by 195 Parties at the UN Climate Change Conference (COP21) in Paris, France, on 12 December 2015.
• India, as a signatory to the Paris Agreement (2015), has made several significant climate commitments aimed at mitigating climate change and contributing to global efforts in limiting global warming to well below 2°C, with efforts to limit it to 1.5°C.  

Nationally Determined Contribution

• India submitted its first Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) in the year 2015 comprising of following two targets to be achieved by 2030:
  • Reduce the emissions intensity of its GDP by 33 to 35 percent from 2005 level.
  • Achieve about 40 percent cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources.
• These two targets have been achieved well ahead of the time. As on 31st October, 2023; the cumulative electric power installed capacity from non-fossil fuel-based energy resources is 186.46 MW, which is the 43.81% of the total cumulative electric power installed capacity.  As per the third national communication submitted by India to the UNFCCC in December 2023, the emission intensity of its GDP has been reduced by 33 percent between 2005 and 2019.
• NDC was updated in August 2022 with several key changes:
  • India committed to reducing its GDP emissions intensity by 45% by 2030, compared to 2005 levels.
  • The target for electricity from non-fossil fuels was raised to 50% of cumulative installed capacity by 2030.
  • Introduction of the ‘LiFE’ (Lifestyle for Environment) initiative promoting sustainable living, aimed at combating climate change.

COP26

During COP26 in Glasgow (2021), India took following steps to enhance its climate commitments:

• Net-Zero Emissions by 2070: India made a landmark commitment to achieve net-zero emissions by 2070, a key milestone that was welcomed as a significant step in reducing global emissions. While this target is later than the 2050 target set by many developed nations, it considers India’s developmental priorities and the need for financial and technological support.
• Updated Renewable Energy Targets: India enhanced its target for renewable energy by pledging to achieve 500 GW of non-fossil energy capacity by 2030, which is a substantial increase from its original commitment. This ambitious target reflects India’s focus on scaling up clean energy solutions to meet growing energy demands.
• Reducing Total Projected Carbon Emissions: India committed to reducing its total projected carbon emissions by 1 billion tonnes by 2030, showcasing its focus on addressing both emissions intensity and overall emissions growth.
• Phase Out of Coal: India announced the intention to reduce the use of coal and shift towards cleaner energy sources, signaling a strong commitment to phasing out fossil fuel dependency in the long term.
• Panchamrit (Five Nectar Elements): India articulated and put across the concerns of developing countries at the 26th session of the COP26 to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It presented the following five nectar elements of India’s climate action:
  • Reach 500GWNon-fossil energy capacity by 2030.
  • 50 per cent of its energy requirements from renewable energy by 2030.
  • Reduction of total projected carbon emissions by one billion tonnes from now to 2030.
  • Reduction of the carbon intensity of the economy by 45 per cent by 2030, over 2005 levels.
  • Achieving the target of net zero emissions by 2070.

Conclusion

India has progressively scaled up ambitions w.r.t. climate change, while balancing growth and equity. Targets achieved well ahead of its time, updated NDCs, Panchamrit, and LiFE vision demonstrate India’s leadership in climate diplomacy and commitment to a sustainable development model.

Introduction: 

Ans. Mining is vital for extracting essential mineral resources that drive a nation’s economy. Mining contributes 0.90% to India’s GDP.  As per the Indian Bureau of Mines, India’s total geographical area is 328.73 million hectares, of which only 0.09% (3.12 lakh hectares) is under mining leases (excluding fuel, atomic, and minor minerals). Despite such a small share, mining activities pose significant environmental hazards alongside their economic contributions.

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Reasons Mining is Considered as  Environmental Hazard

• Deforestation and Habitat Destruction: Large-scale mining operations, particularly in forested regions, lead to the destruction of forests and loss of biodiversity. This disrupts ecosystems and wildlife habitats.
  • Example, The  Supreme Court in Bellary Iron Ore Mining (Karnataka) issue  found that rampant illegal iron ore mining in Bellary, Chitradurga, and Tumkur districts of Karnataka led to large scale deforestation and loss of biodiversity.
    
• Water Pollution: Mining activities often result in the contamination of water bodies with harmful chemicals, such as heavy metals and toxic waste from tailings, which can poison aquatic life and affect nearby communities.
  • Example, According to the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) and Indian Bureau of Mines (IBM), the Sukinda valley-one of the world’s largest chromite deposits-faces severe water pollution from hexavalent chromium discharged by open-cast mining.
    
• Soil Erosion and Land Degradation: The removal of vegetation and topsoil during mining leads to soil erosion and loss of soil fertility, making the land unsuitable for agriculture or natural regeneration.
  • Example, Uranium mining at Jaduguda ( Jharkhand) has generated radioactive wastes leading to land degradation.
• Air Pollution: Dust and particulate matter generated by mining activities can degrade air quality, leading to respiratory diseases in miners and nearby populations.
  • Example, in Goa iron ore mining has led to siltation and contamination of rivers affecting aquatic life.
    
• Waste Generation: Mining produces large amounts of waste, including tailings, slag, and toxic by-products, which can leach into the environment and contaminate soil and water resources.
• Acid Mine Drainage (AMD): It refers to the outflow of acidic water from mining sites, especially coal and metal mines, when sulfide minerals (like pyrite – FeS₂) are exposed to air and water. This reaction produces sulfuric acid and dissolved iron, lowering the pH of water bodies.

Remedial Measures

• Reforestation and Land Restoration: Rehabilitating mined lands through afforestation, soil restoration, and creating green cover can help restore ecosystems.
  • Example, the Government has launched various afforestation measures like Ek Ped Maa ke Naam,  Nagar Van Yojana.
    
• Water Management: Using water treatment techniques to prevent contamination and designing proper drainage systems to control runoff can protect water bodies from mining waste.
  • Example, Namami Gange Programme, National Water Mission. 
• Sustainable Mining Practices: Implementing cleaner and more efficient mining technologies that reduce dust emissions, energy consumption, and water usage is crucial.
  
• Waste Management: Proper disposal of mining waste, including safe tailings management and recycling, is essential to prevent pollution.
  
• Strict Regulatory Oversight: Enforcing environmental regulations, conducting environmental impact assessments (EIA), and regular monitoring are vital for ensuring sustainable mining practices.
  • Example, District Mineral Foundation (DMF), Star Rating of Mines (2016), National Mineral Policy 2019, Mine Closure Plans. 

Conclusion

Mining is often a double-edged sword-while it significantly contributes to economic growth, it simultaneously causes serious environmental hazards. Hence, the need of the hour is to adopt a sustainable mining approach, ensuring that economic development and environmental protection coexist in harmony.

India has ambitious plans to become a global semiconductor manufacturing hub, but it faces several challenges in achieving this goal. The semiconductor industry is critical for powering a wide range of technologies, from consumer electronics to electric vehicles (EVs) and industrial applications. While India has a large and growing market for semiconductors, the country faces multiple hurdles in establishing itself as a major semiconductor manufacturing center.

Challenges Faced by the Semiconductor Industry in India

1. Lack of Infrastructure and Ecosystem

• Manufacturing Facilities: One of the primary challenges is the lack of high-tech manufacturing facilities. Semiconductor manufacturing requires specialized facilities known as fab plants (fabrication plants), which are highly capital-intensive and need significant investment. India currently lacks a robust ecosystem to support semiconductor manufacturing at a competitive scale.
• Supply Chain Gaps: Semiconductor production depends on an extensive global supply chain for raw materials, equipment, and specialized expertise. India has limited access to high-quality materials such as silicon wafers, rare earth metals, and specialized chemicals used in semiconductor production.

2. High Capital Investment

• Capital-Intensive Nature: Semiconductor manufacturing is capital-intensive, requiring billions of dollars in investment. Setting up a semiconductor fabrication plant (fab) involves massive costs in both building the plant and maintaining advanced equipment. The lack of a favorable financial environment and access to capital makes it difficult for Indian companies to compete on the global stage.

3. Skilled Workforce

• Lack of Skilled Labor: While India has a large pool of engineers, there is a shortage of specialized skills required in semiconductor design, fabrication, and manufacturing. Developing a skilled workforce in the semiconductor sector requires specialized education, training, and partnerships with global players.
• Talent Retention: Skilled semiconductor professionals are in high demand worldwide, and India faces a challenge in retaining talent due to competition from other countries offering higher pay and better infrastructure.

4. Technology and Intellectual Property

• Dependence on Foreign Technology: India currently depends on foreign companies for semiconductor manufacturing technologies and intellectual property. Competing in this sector requires cutting-edge R&D capabilities, which India is still working to develop. Establishing domestic capabilities in design, fabrication, and innovation will be crucial for long-term success.
• IP Challenges: Developing and maintaining intellectual property (IP) rights related to semiconductor designs and processes is also a complex issue. India must focus on creating an IP-driven ecosystem to protect and commercialize its innovations.

5. Global Competition and Geopolitical Risks

• Global Competition: The semiconductor market is already dominated by countries such as Taiwan, South Korea, the United States, and China, which have established semiconductor ecosystems with decades of experience. Competing with these established players will require India to offer incentives and create an environment conducive to global players.
• Geopolitical Risks: Geopolitical tensions, particularly in regions where semiconductor supply chains are heavily concentrated (like East Asia), could disrupt the industry. India will need to build strong international partnerships to mitigate these risks and ensure a stable supply chain.

6. Energy and Environmental Concerns

• High Energy Consumption: Semiconductor manufacturing is energy-intensive, and India will need to ensure access to reliable, sustainable energy sources for such facilities. The high energy requirements also raise environmental concerns, as semiconductor plants can produce significant electronic waste and require large water supplies.

Salient Features of the India Semiconductor Mission (ISM)

The ISM is an ambitious initiative launched by the Government of India to boost the semiconductor manufacturing ecosystem in the country. The mission aims to address the various challenges mentioned above and position India as a key player in the global semiconductor market.

1. Objective and Focus Areas

• Attracting Investment: The primary objective of ISM is to attract global and domestic investment in the semiconductor manufacturing sector, with a focus on setting up semiconductor fabs and display fabs in India.
• Developing a Self-Reliant Semiconductor Ecosystem: ISM seeks to promote India’s semiconductor design, innovation, and manufacturing capabilities, reducing its dependency on global players for semiconductor products.
• Fostering Innovation and R&D: The mission emphasizes building research and development (R&D) capabilities, nurturing semiconductor startups, and encouraging collaborations between academia, industry, and government.

2. Financial Support and Incentives

• Financial Assistance: The Government of India has committed to providing financial incentives to attract investment in semiconductor manufacturing. This includes a 100% reimbursement of project costs for setting up semiconductor fabs, along with a subsidy for capital expenditure to reduce the initial investment burden.
• Tax Incentives: The ISM provides tax incentives, including duty exemptions on equipment imports and GST reductions for semiconductor manufacturing, to make the sector more attractive for investors.

3. Infrastructure Development

• Building Semiconductor Fabs: The ISM encourages setting up semiconductor fabrication plants (fabs) and assembly, testing, and packaging (ATP) units in India. A key part of the mission is to build state-of-the-art infrastructure to ensure the growth of the semiconductor industry.
• Semiconductor Packaging and Testing Units: Apart from fabs, the mission aims to develop units for packaging and testing of semiconductors, which are crucial for the production process.

4. Human Capital Development

• Skilling and Training Programs: ISM focuses on the development of human capital by supporting skilling initiatives, including training programs for workers in the semiconductor manufacturing process. Partnerships with global leaders and educational institutions will help build a skilled workforce.
• Collaboration with Global Experts: The mission envisions bringing global players in semiconductor manufacturing to India to foster knowledge transfer, technology sharing, and capacity building.

5. Promoting R&D and Innovation

• Funding for R&D: The ISM supports R&D initiatives in the semiconductor domain, with funding for innovation in design, manufacturing, and packaging of semiconductors.
• Encouraging Semiconductor Startups: The government has introduced measures to nurture semiconductor startups and incubators, helping them grow and contribute to the semiconductor value chain.

6. Strategic Partnerships

• Public-Private Partnerships (PPP): The ISM promotes collaboration between the government and private sector players, including global semiconductor companies, to build a robust ecosystem in India.
• International Collaborations: The mission encourages partnerships with foreign governments and international firms to ensure access to technology and expertise, further helping to integrate India into the global semiconductor supply chain.

7. Boosting Demand for Semiconductors

• Boosting Domestic Demand: The ISM also focuses on increasing the domestic demand for semiconductors by promoting industries that heavily rely on semiconductors, such as electronics, automobiles, and consumer goods.
• Government Procurement Policies: The government is also pushing for favorable procurement policies to encourage domestic semiconductor demand.

India is strengthening its semiconductor ecosystem through the ISM, agreements with the US, EU, Japan, and Singapore, along with targeted skill development initiatives. Programs like Chips to Startup (C2S), which aims to train 85,000 professionals, specialised degree courses in Very Large-Scale Integration (VLSI) and integrated circuit manufacturing, and the Skilled Manpower Advanced Research and Training (SMART) Lab at the National Institute of Electronics and Information Technology (NIELIT) in Calicut are building advanced talent. With strong policy support, global partnerships, and a focus on research and innovation, India is poised to become a self-reliant semiconductor hub and a key player in global supply chains.

Introduction: 

Nanotechnology is the science, engineering, and application of materials and devices at the nanoscale, typically between 1 to 100 nanometers (nm). A nanometer is one-billionth of a meter. It is revolutionizing agriculture by enhancing productivity, sustainability, and resource efficiency. Unlike traditional farming, which often overuses fertilizers, pesticides, and water, nanotech enables precision at the molecular level.

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Nanotechnology Advancements in Agriculture 

• Improved Crop Production: 
  • Nano-fertilizers ensure controlled release of nutrients, improving nutrient absorption and reducing wastage. 
  • Nano-pesticides provide targeted, efficient pest control, minimizing chemical usage and environmental impact. 
  • Example, the Indian Farmers Fertiliser Cooperative (IFFCO) developed the world's first liquid nano urea fertilizer. 
• Soil and Water Management: 
  • Nano-sensors monitor soil moisture, nutrient levels, and contamination, enabling precise irrigation and fertilization. 
  • Optimizes water usage, particularly in water-scarce regions, improving sustainability.
  • Example, IIT Madras developed water purifiers using nanomaterials to remove contaminants like arsenic, lead, mercury, and organics from water. 
• Enhanced Crop Protection: 
  • Nanoscale coatings protect crops from diseases, pests, and environmental stress, improving resilience and quality. 
  • Nano-biosensors detect plant diseases early, allowing for quicker intervention. 
  • Example, scientists in India are developing electrochemical nano-biosensors that use nanostructures to detect plant diseases.
• Resource Efficiency: 
  • Reduces the need for excessive chemicals, leading to sustainable farming practices. 
  • Increases resource use efficiency, reducing waste and conserving environmental resources. 
• Drought Tolerance & Stress Management: Certain nanoparticles, such as silicon nanoparticles and titanium dioxide (TiO₂) nanoparticles, have been shown to enhance drought tolerance by regulating stomatal behavior, improving photosynthesis, and reducing oxidative stress in plants.
  • Example, research at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi demonstrated that nano-silicon applications improved drought resilience in wheat by enhancing water-use efficiency.
• Plant Breeding Innovation: Nanotechnology is being used to deliver DNA, RNA, and proteins at the nanoscale for precise genetic modification, enabling faster breeding of crops with desired traits.
  • Example, scientists at the National Botanical Research Institute (NBRI), Lucknow, have experimented with carbon nanotube-mediated gene delivery in plants to improve stress tolerance.

Socio-Economic Benefits for Farmers

• Increased Yields: Higher productivity from optimized inputs leads to more substantial crop yields and better quality produce. 
• Cost Reduction: Reduced need for chemical fertilizers and pesticides lowers operational costs, improving profitability. 
• Higher Income: Increased crop yield and quality open access to premium markets and higher selling prices. 
• Improved Sustainability: Sustainable farming practices enhance long-term agricultural viability, benefiting future generations. 
• Empowerment through Technology: Access to advanced tools like nano-sensors and smart farming technology improves decision-making and efficiency, empowering farmers with better management strategies. 
• Better Market Access: Improved crop quality and resilience help farmers meet market demand for healthy, sustainable produce, increasing their competitiveness. 
  • However,  farmers across Rajasthan have been protesting against government-backed mandates that effectively force them to purchase Nano Urea.

Conclusion

Nanotechnology holds significant potential to revolutionize agriculture by enhancing crop production, improving resource efficiency, and promoting sustainable practices. Through innovations such as nano-fertilizers, nano-pesticides, and nano-sensors, farmers can achieve better yields, reduce costs, and increase the quality of their produce. 

Introduction 

The food processing industry refers to the transformation of raw agricultural products into value-added food items through various techniques such as preservation, packaging, and preparation. It is a priority under the Make in India initiative, with the Ministry of Food Processing Industries implementing schemes to attract investment and develop infrastructure. The Ministry's budget for 2024-25 increased by approximately 30.19% compared to the previous year.

Scope of the Food Processing Industries in India

• India’s Agricultural Base: India being the largest producer of fruits, vegetables, millets, tea, food grains, milk, and livestock globally, provides a solid foundation for the food processing industry. 
• Government Initiatives and Support: The government’s push for infrastructure development through schemes like PM Kisan Sampada Yojana (PMKSY), Production Linked Incentive Scheme (PLISFPI), and PMFME Scheme significantly enhances the industry’s scope by providing financial support, technical assistance, and market access.
• Infrastructure Development: The establishment of Mega Food Parks and Cold Chain Projects across agriculturally rich areas highlights the government's effort to improve the industry’s infrastructure and offer opportunities for entrepreneurs to access shared facilities.
• Technological Advancements: With a focus on innovation, there is a need for branding and marketing, particularly for Indian food brands in international markets. This global expansion is an important aspect of the industry’s scope.
• Employment Generation: The sector is set to create significant employment opportunities, especially in rural areas, through the development of the food processing infrastructure and Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs).

Government Measures in the Food Processing Industries for Generating Employment Opportunities

• Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana (PMKSY): This umbrella scheme, with an allocation of Rs. 6,000 crore, aims to modernize infrastructure, reduce food wastage, and create employment in rural areas. It includes the development of Mega Food Parks, Cold Chain Projects, and Agro-processing Clusters.
• Production Linked Incentive Scheme for Food Processing Industry (PLISFPI): Launched in 2021, this Rs. 10,900 crore scheme encourages the manufacturing of processed foods like Ready-to-Cook meals, processed fruits, and marine products. It also incentivizes the export of Indian food brands globally.
  • An investment of Rs. 8,910 crore has been made across 213 locations. As of 31 October 2024, the scheme has reportedly generated employment of over 2.89 lakh.
• Pradhan Mantri Formalisation of Micro Food Processing Enterprises (PMFME) Scheme: Aimed at formalizing micro food processing enterprises, this scheme provides Rs. 10,000 crore funding to benefit 2 lakh enterprises, fostering local innovation and entrepreneurship through a ‘One District One Product’ approach.

Collectively, these initiatives have strengthened SMEs by fostering innovation, improving competitiveness, expanding market access, generating employment opportunities, and supporting the broader value chain in the food processing industry.

Way Forward

To realize its full potential, the food processing sector must strengthen farmer–industry linkages, expand cold chains, and ensure easier credit access for MSMEs. Greater focus on skill development, sustainable packaging, and global branding of Indian food products will generate inclusive employment and enhance India’s position as a global food hub.

Conclusion

India's food processing sector holds significant growth potential. Cold chain expansion, financial incentives, and skill development have positioned India as a global hub. Focusing on innovation, sustainability, and entrepreneurship, the sector will boost farmer incomes, create jobs, reduce food waste, and drive exports, playing a crucial role in economic growth and global competitiveness under the Make in India initiative.

Introduction

Groundwater depletion has emerged as a critical environmental and socio-economic challenge in India. In 2024, total annual groundwater recharge experienced a significant increase of 15 BCM (Billion Cubic Meters), while extraction decreased by 3 BCM compared to the 2017 assessment. This progress underscores the importance of understanding groundwater's availability, usage, and the challenges ahead.

Factors Contributing to Groundwater Depletion

• Over-extraction for Irrigation: The Central Ground Water Board reports that 1,186 out of 6,881 assessed units in India are over-exploited, primarily due to agricultural use.
  • Example: In Punjab, the water table has been declining at a rate of 0.7-1.2 meters per year due to intensive rice-wheat cultivation.
• Population Growth and Urbanization: India's urban population is projected to reach 600 million by 2036, further straining groundwater resources.
  • Example: In Delhi, groundwater levels have dropped by 24 meters in the 2011-2020 due to population growth and urbanization.
• Inefficient Water Use and Distribution: High water losses due to leakages, inefficient irrigation methods, and outdated infrastructure.
  • Example: The city of Mumbai loses about 30-35% of its water supply due to leakages and theft.
• Climate Change: The Indian Meteorological Department reports a 6% decline in mean annual rainfall since the 1950s, affecting groundwater recharge.
  • Example: The 2018 Kerala floods, followed by severe droughts, highlight the impact of climate change on water resources.
• Lack of Regulation and Enforcement: Weak groundwater laws and inadequate monitoring of extraction rates.
  • Example: As of 2021, only 19 states/UTs have enacted legislation for the management of ground water and among them, the legislation was only partially implemented in four states.

Government Initiatives in India for Groundwater Management

• Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT) 2.0: This mission supports rainwater harvesting via stormwater drains and promotes groundwater recharge through 'Aquifer Management Plans.' 
• Atal Bhujal Yojana (2020): This initiative targets water-stressed Gram Panchayats in 80 districts across 7 states, focusing on groundwater management. 
• National Aquifer Mapping (NAQUIM): Completed by the Central Ground Water Board (CGWB) for over 25 lakh sq. km, this initiative supports groundwater recharge and conservation planning. 
• Master Plan for Artificial Recharge to Groundwater (2020): Developed by CGWB, plans for 1.42 crore rainwater harvesting and recharge structures to harness 185 BCM of rainfall.
• Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY): The PMKSY aims to expand irrigation coverage and improve water use efficiency through components like Har Khet Ko Pani, Repair & Renovation of water bodies, and Surface Minor Irrigation schemes. 
• Bureau of Water Use Efficiency (BWUE): Set up under the National Water Mission in 2022, the BWUE promotes water use efficiency across sectors such as irrigation, drinking water supply, power generation, and industries. 
• Mission Amrit Sarovar (2022): This mission aims to create or rejuvenate 75 Amrit Sarovars in every district to enhance water harvesting and conservation. 
• National Water Policy (2012): Formulated by the Department of Water Resources, this policy advocates for rainwater harvesting, water conservation, and augmenting water availability through direct use of rainfall. 
• Composite Water Management Index (CWMI) 2.0: First launched in June 2018 by NITI Aayog, the 2.0 version ranks various states for the reference year 2017-18 as against the base year 2016-17. 

Conclusion

Addressing groundwater depletion in India requires a multi-faceted approach combining improved agricultural practices, efficient water use, artificial recharge, demand management, and strengthened regulations. By implementing sustainable water management practices, India can work towards ensuring water security for its growing population and economy while preserving this critical natural resource for future generations.

Introduction 

The PLI scheme is an initiative by the Government of India aimed at boosting domestic manufacturing, enhancing the competitiveness of Indian industries, and reducing import dependency. The scheme is designed to provide financial incentives to businesses for increasing production in key sectors, thereby creating a conducive environment for sustainable industrial growth. The overarching objective is to make India a global manufacturing hub, attract foreign investment, and create employment opportunities. The PLI scheme in India covers around 14 key sectors, implemented by various ministries and departments to boost domestic manufacturing, exports, and investments.

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Rationale of the Production Linked Incentive (PLI) scheme:

1. Boosting Domestic Manufacturing and Attracting Investment: India aims to increase its manufacturing sector’s contribution to GDP, which has been relatively stagnant over the years. The PLI scheme incentivizes companies to expand production and scale operations domestically, thereby enhancing their competitiveness both in the domestic and international markets.
   • The PLI scheme also attracts foreign direct investment (FDI), particularly in sectors such as electronics, pharmaceuticals, and automobiles, which require advanced technologies and capital. 
2. Reducing Import Dependency and Promoting Self-Reliance (Aatmanirbhar Bharat): The scheme aims to reduce India’s dependency on imports, particularly in critical sectors like electronics, mobile manufacturing, and pharmaceuticals, thus reducing the trade deficit. By encouraging domestic production, the government seeks to promote self-reliance (Aatmanirbhar Bharat) in these sectors, enhancing national security and resilience.
3. Employment Generation: By encouraging companies to scale up manufacturing and establish new production units and also boosting the MSME ecosystem, which employs significantly large workforce, the scheme is designed to generate substantial employment opportunities in various sectors, including technology, manufacturing, and services. 
4. Enhancing Export Competitiveness: By incentivizing domestic manufacturing, the PLI scheme helps Indian products become more cost-competitive in the global markets. Increased production capacity coupled with lower costs is expected to boost India’s export potential.
5. Support to Key Sectors and Technological Advancement: The PLI scheme focuses on sectors with strategic importance for the country’s development. It promotes technological innovation, research, and development in key industries like electronics, solar manufacturing, automotive, textiles, and pharmaceuticals.

Achievements of the PLI Scheme:

1. Increased Production and Investments in Key Sectors: The scheme has led to substantial investments in sectors like electronics, mobile manufacturing, pharmaceuticals, textiles, and renewable energy. 
   • In the electronics sector, the PLI scheme has incentivized companies like Apple, Samsung, and Foxconn to ramp up their manufacturing capacities in India. 
   • The pharmaceuticals sector has witnessed increased production of critical drugs and medical devices, reducing dependency on imports from countries like China.
2. Increase in Exports: The PLI scheme has resulted in significant increases in exports in sectors like electronics, textiles, and automobiles. For instance, the renewable energy sector has seen strong growth, with rising exports of solar photovoltaic (PV) modules and wind energy equipment, helping India position itself as a global clean energy manufacturing hub.
3. Employment Generation: The PLI scheme has played a role in creating employment across various sectors. The PLI scheme for drones and drone components is expected to create over 10,000 direct jobs and several thousand indirect jobs by boosting domestic manufacturing and reducing import dependence in this emerging sector.
4. Fostering Technological Innovation: The PLI scheme has encouraged companies to adopt advanced technologies and improve manufacturing processes. It has also supported the development of new technologies, especially in sectors such as electric vehicles (EVs), renewable energy, and electronics manufacturing.
5. Diversification of Manufacturing Base: The PLI scheme has helped diversify India’s manufacturing base, especially in sectors like semiconductors, solar panels, and automobiles. The introduction of PLI in these high-potential sectors has made India more competitive globally.

Areas for Improvement in the PLI Scheme

1. Streamlining Implementation and Reducing Bureaucratic Delays: One of the main challenges faced by businesses is the slow approval process and complex paperwork. Delays in sanctioning incentives or procedural hurdles could discourage businesses from fully utilizing the scheme. Streamlining these procedures and ensuring timely disbursal of funds can make the process more efficient and attractive to investors. 
2. Incentivizing Domestic Supply Chains: While the scheme has led to significant foreign investment, there is a need to incentivize local sourcing of materials and components. This would ensure that the benefits of the PLI scheme percolate throughout the Indian economy, particularly to small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) that could become integral parts of supply chains.
3. Expanding the Scope of the Scheme: Currently, the PLI scheme covers specific sectors such as electronics, pharmaceuticals, automobiles, textiles, and renewable energy. To enhance its impact, the government could consider expanding the PLI scheme to more sectors, such as advanced manufacturing, artificial intelligence (AI), and semiconductors.
4. Support for R&D and Innovation: Although the PLI scheme has stimulated production, there needs to be a stronger focus on research and development (R&D) and technological innovation within the eligible sectors. Companies should be incentivized not just for scaling up production but also for adopting cutting-edge technologies and innovating in product design and process improvement.
5. Ensuring Inclusivity in Job Creation: While the scheme has created jobs, there needs to be a stronger focus on ensuring that the jobs created are sustainable, well-paying, and accessible to India's diverse population, including rural and semi-urban areas. Upskilling programs should be part of the scheme to ensure that workers can meet the technical demands of modern manufacturing.
6. Promoting Environmental Sustainability: The scheme should also focus on promoting environmentally sustainable manufacturing practices. The adoption of green technologies, eco-friendly materials, and energy-efficient processes should be incentivized, particularly in industries like automobiles, electronics, and textiles.

The PLI scheme should further leverage transparent applications, widen the eligibility criteria, and intensify the annual performance reviews to boost domestic production, attract investment, and reduce import dependence. By empowering industries with more incentives tied to incremental sales and technological advancement, the government should ensure more robust manufacturing growth while maintaining global competitiveness, especially in the context of rising protectionism and trade disputes.

Introduction: 

The Fiscal Health Index (FHI) initiative by NITI Aayog aims to evolve an understanding of the fiscal health of states in India. FHI is a valuable tool for assessing the fiscal performance of states by providing a clear, standardized measure of their financial health. 

Role of FHI in Assessing Fiscal Performance of States 

• Comprehensive Evaluation: FHI evaluates multiple fiscal indicators such as revenue generation, expenditure management, fiscal deficit, and debt levels.
  • For instance, Odisha scored high on the debt index (99) and topped the overall ranking with 67.8, while kerala scored just 4/100 in the expenditure quality.
• Benchmarking States: It allows for comparison among states, highlighting those with strong fiscal management and those requiring improvements.
• Tracking Trends: Regular updates of the FHI help monitor a state’s fiscal health over time, providing insights into its financial trajectory.
• Assistance to Policymakers: The index acts as an assistance to policymakers in making informed decisions aimed at enhancing fiscal sustainability and resilience.
• Promote Fiscal Management Practices: It helps to identify areas of strength and concern in states' fiscal management practices.Promote transparency, accountability, and prudent fiscal management through empirical assessment.

Encouraging Prudent and Sustainable Fiscal Policies

• Incentive for Improvement: States with higher FHI scores may receive better terms for borrowing, promoting fiscal discipline and efficient resource use.
• Corrective Measures: Low FHI scores signal areas of concern, motivating states to reform policies like tax collection, expenditure management, and debt reduction.
• Long-Term Focus: By assessing fiscal sustainability, FHI encourages states to adopt policies that promote long-term stability rather than short-term fiscal fixes.
• Competitive Spirit: States may strive to improve their FHI scores to attract investment and development opportunities, fostering competition for better fiscal governance.
• Accountability: It holds states accountable by linking fiscal performance with tangible outcomes like financial assistance, creating an incentive for adherence to fiscal prudence.

Conclusion

The Fiscal Health Index (FHI) helps policymakers make informed decisions but also promotes accountability, transparency, and long-term fiscal sustainability. Through fostering competition for better fiscal governance, FHI plays a pivotal role in enhancing the financial resilience of states, ultimately contributing to India's overall economic stability and growth.

Introduction

Left-Wing Extremism (LWE), also known as Naxalism, is an armed insurgency led by Maoist groups aiming to overthrow the government through violence. It originated from the Naxalbari movement in 1967 (West Bengal) and has spread across various parts of India, particularly within the Red Corridor.

Impact of LWE on People

• Disrupt essential services such as education, healthcare, connectivity, and banking.
• Isolate communities from development. 
• Violence destroys infrastructure—roads, schools, hospitals—and leads to significant loss of life. 
• Young people are often coerced into joining insurgency groups, leaving families and communities in distress. 
• The constant presence of armed insurgents creates fear, insecurity, and trauma among residents.
• Example: Salwa Judum is a group of tribal persons mobilized for resistance against outlawed armed naxalites. It was argued that the displaced individuals, residing in forest areas across several states, have been deprived of essential welfare schemes, including land rights, tribal status, social welfare benefits, and Forest Rights Act entitlements.

Government Measures to Eliminate LWE

• National Policy and Action Plan (2015): Modernized security forces, strengthened intelligence, and enhanced operational capabilities of central and state police.
• Zero-tolerance Policy: Through schemes like the Security-related Expenditure (SRE), the government reimburses costs incurred by states for security operations, training, and other expenses.
• Infrastructure Development and Connectivity: 3 telecom projects are being implemented (including 4G connectivity). The construction of Fortified Police Stations (FPSs) has increased significantly, from 66 in 2014 to 612 in 2024.
• Social and Economic Empowerment: New bank branches, ATMs, 48 ITIs, 61 Skill Development Centers, and 178 Eklavya Model Residential Schools. The Dharti Aaba Janjatiya Gram Utkarsh Abhiyan (2024) benefits 1.5 crore people in 15,000 villages.
• Civic Engagement and Awareness Programs: Programs like Civic Action Program (CAP), media campaigns, and Tribal Youth Exchange Programs build trust and counter Maoist propaganda.
• SAMADHAN doctrine: A one-stop solution for the LWE problem. It encompasses the entire strategy of government from short-term policy to long-term policy formulated at different levels. SAMADHAN stand for: Smart leadership, Aggressive strategy, Motivation and training, Actionable intelligence, Dashboard-based KRAs, Harnessing technology, Theatre-specific action plans, No access to financing

Success and Progress

Violent incidents dropped by 81% (1,936 in 2010 to 374 in 2024), and deaths fell by 85%. LWE-affected districts reduced from 126 in 2018 to 38 in 2024. Thousands of Naxals have surrendered, been arrested, or neutralized—290 neutralized, 1,090 arrested, and 881 surrendered in 2024 alone.

Conclusion

LWE is both a security and socio-economic challenge rooted in alienation. Its elimination requires a balance of strong security and inclusive development, reflecting the triumph of democracy’s promise of justice and equity.

Under the Bharatiya Nyaya Samhita, "terrorism" is defined as any act committed with the intention to threaten the unity, integrity, and security of India, intimidate the public or a segment thereof, or disturb public order. Globally, it threatens peace, development, and human security, with organizations like ISIS, Al-Qaeda, and Boko Haram spreading fear, destabilizing states, and disrupting international trade and governance.

Manifestation of Terrorism in India

1. Cross-Border Terrorism: Pakistan-based groups like Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammed (JeM) are behind major attacks in India.
   • Examples include the 2008 Mumbai attacks and the 2019 Pulwama attack and 2025 Pahalgam terror attack, causing extensive loss of life and destabilization.
2. Radicalization and Homegrown Terrorism: Radicalization, often through social media, has led to lone-wolf attacks and recruitment for terrorist organizations.
   • Recent examples include ISIS-inspired groups and attacks like Pathankot (2016).
3. Religious Terrorism: Radicalized religious groups engage in violence, citing religious motivations for attacks on minorities or state authorities.
   • The 2016 Bengaluru bombing and Kashmir militancy have been manifestations of this.
4. Northeastern Insurgencies: ULFA, NSCN-K, and other groups demand autonomy or secession from India.
   • Their activities destabilize the Northeast, with violent attacks on civilians and security forces.
5. Left-Wing Extremism (LWE): Maoist insurgents (CPI-Maoist) in Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, and Orissa engage in violence, targeting security forces and government infrastructure.
   • These groups aim to overthrow the government through armed rebellion, causing widespread disruption and casualties.
6. Cyberterrorism: Terrorist groups use cyberspace to launch cyberattacks on critical infrastructure, spread propaganda, steal sensitive data, and recruit members online. 
   • Example: In May 2025, Jasim Shahnawaz Ansari was arrested for over 50 cyberattacks on Indian government websites, using Distributed Denial of Service(DDoS) tools to disrupt services during Operation Sindoor.
7. Sectarian Violence: Tensions between Hindu-Muslim communities sometimes lead to violence, such as riots and targeted attacks.
   • Though not all are classified as terrorism, they often have similar ideological motivations. 

Contemporary Examples of Terrorism in India

1. 2025 Pahalgam Terror Attack: On 22 April 2025, The Resistance Front (TRF) militants, a proxy of LeT, opened fire on tourists at Baisaran Valley, Pahalgam, killing 26 civilians and injuring around 20. Victims were targeted based on religious identity. It is the deadliest civilian attack in India since the 2008 Mumbai attacks.
2. Maoist Attacks in Chhattisgarh: In 2021, Maoists ambushed a police convoy, killing several officers in Chhattisgarh.
   • Left-wing extremism continues to challenge India’s internal security, especially in the Red Corridor.
3. 2019 Pulwama Attack: A suicide bomber from JeM killed 40 CRPF personnel in Jammu & Kashmir.
   • This attack led to a major escalation between India and Pakistan, including India’s airstrike on Balakot.
4. 2016 Pathankot Attack: JeM militants attacked the Pathankot Air Force Station, killing 7 security personnel.
   • This highlighted vulnerabilities in India’s defense infrastructure and its porous border with Pakistan. 
5. 2008 Mumbai Attacks: LeT militants launched a series of attacks in Mumbai, killing 166 people and injuring hundreds.
   • This highlighted the vulnerability of urban infrastructure to well-coordinated terrorist attacks.
6. Radicalization and ISIS Modules: Various ISIS-inspired terrorist modules have been detected in Kerala, Tamil Nadu, and Kashmir, recruiting young individuals for terrorism.
   • These radicalized youths are often influenced by online content and external terror organizations.

Countermeasures Adopted by the State

1. Legislative Measures: UAPA (1967) and the NIA Act (2008) empower Indian authorities to investigate, detain, and prosecute terrorists.
   • The Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act (UAPA) allows preventive detention, seizure of property, and outlawing of terrorist organizations.
2. National Investigation Agency (NIA): The NIA is tasked with investigating and prosecuting terror-related crimes, ensuring a unified national response.
   • The agency has taken action in cases like Pathankot, Pahalgam and Pulwama.
3. Security Operations: Indian Army and National Security Guard (NSG) conduct regular counter-terror operations to neutralize militant groups.
   • Operation All Out in Kashmir and anti-Naxal operations in Chhattisgarh are ongoing measures.
4. Border Security Enhancement: BSF and ITBP bolster security at India’s borders with Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Myanmar to prevent cross-border terrorism.
   • Surveillance systems, drone patrolling, and border fencing are critical to reducing infiltration.
5. Intelligence Sharing and Technology: Agencies like the Intelligence Bureau (IB), R&AW, and NTRO share intelligence to preempt terrorist activities.
   • Technologies like AI, drones, and biometrics aid in surveillance and threat detection.
6. Counter-Radicalization Programs: Community-based de-radicalization programs are in place, particularly in Kashmir, to engage with youth and prevent radicalization.
   • The Jammu & Kashmir Police have implemented rehabilitation programs for surrendered militants.
7. International Cooperation: India has worked with global agencies like Interpol, FBI, and UNODC to combat transnational terrorism.
   • India has consistently pushed for an international convention on terrorism at the UN.
8. Public Awareness Campaigns: Cyber surveillance and counter-narrative campaigns focus on curbing extremist ideologies, especially in vulnerable youth groups.
   • India has implemented initiatives such as the National Counter Terrorism Centre (NCTC) to coordinate and share anti-terror strategies across states.

The state has developed a multi-faceted approach to combat terrorism. Yet, the evolving nature of terror threats calls for constant innovation—leveraging AI-driven surveillance, robust cybersecurity, deradicalization initiatives, regional intelligence cooperation, and socio-economic development in vulnerable regions. A balanced approach that combines hard security measures with preventive strategies will be key to safeguarding national security while addressing the root causes of radicalization. However, the evolving nature of terrorism demands continuous adaptation in strategies, improved international collaboration, and the adoption of modern technologies to safeguard national security and prevent further radicalization.

Seawater intrusion into coastal aquifers is a significant environmental concern in many parts of the world, including India. This phenomenon occurs when saltwater from the sea infiltrates freshwater aquifers, rendering the groundwater unfit for human consumption, irrigation, and other uses. In India, the impact of seawater intrusion on coastal aquifers is exacerbated by over-extraction of groundwater, climate change, and improper land and water management practices.

Causes of Seawater Intrusion:

• Over-extraction of Groundwater for Agriculture and Other Uses: Excessive withdrawal of groundwater for irrigation, domestic, and industrial needs disturbs the natural freshwater–seawater balance in aquifers. When extraction outpaces recharge, the hydraulic pressure that prevents seawater intrusion weakens, allowing saltwater to move inland. Unsustainable irrigation practices, such as flood irrigation, further aggravate the problem by accelerating groundwater depletion.
• Rising Sea Levels Due to Climate Change: Sea-level rise due to climate change contributes to increased seawater intrusion. Higher sea levels result in the displacement of saltwater into freshwater aquifers, especially in low-lying coastal areas. The rise in temperature also causes more evaporation, further reducing the freshwater availability.
• Land Use Changes and Urbanization: Urbanization along coastal areas often leads to reduced natural recharge of groundwater, as urban development increases impervious surfaces like concrete and asphalt. This reduces the natural infiltration of rainwater into aquifers, making them more vulnerable to seawater intrusion.
  • Deforestation and changes in land use, such as agricultural expansion near coastal zones, also impact the natural flow of groundwater, exacerbating the problem.
• Natural Geology of Coastal Areas: Some coastal areas have geological characteristics that make them more susceptible to seawater intrusion. The presence of permeable layers, such as sand, gravel, or fractured rock, allows for easier movement of seawater into the aquifers.

Remedial Measures to Combat Seawater Intrusion

• Sustainable Groundwater Management: Regulation of groundwater extraction is critical. This can be done by enforcing regulations on the number of wells, depth of extraction, and the amount of groundwater withdrawn. Recharge management through rainwater harvesting, artificial recharge systems, and recharging ponds can restore the natural pressure balance in aquifers, preventing seawater intrusion.
• Use of Alternative Water Sources: Desalination of seawater and reuse of treated wastewater are viable options in coastal areas facing severe groundwater contamination. This can supplement freshwater supplies for irrigation, industrial use, and drinking, reducing dependence on local groundwater.
  • Surface water management, such as creating reservoirs, can also provide an alternative to groundwater extraction.
• Vegetative and Land Use Management: Reforestation and afforestation of coastal areas help in restoring the natural hydrological balance. Coastal vegetation like mangroves and casuarina trees also act as natural barriers that slow down seawater intrusion.
  • Land-use planning to restrict overexploitation of coastal aquifers and prevent unchecked urbanization near water bodies is essential.
• Coastal Aquifer Management: The construction of subsurface barriers, such as impervious walls or injection of freshwater, can help create a physical barrier between seawater and freshwater aquifers. This prevents the lateral movement of seawater into freshwater zones.
  • Managed aquifer recharge (MAR) is a method of artificially increasing the recharge of aquifers by injecting freshwater into the ground, which can push back seawater.
• Community Awareness and Education: Educating local communities about the importance of water conservation, sustainable agricultural practices, and the impacts of over-extraction can help reduce the demand on groundwater resources. Community-based water management programs can play an important role in mitigating seawater intrusion.
• Monitoring and Data Collection: Establishing a comprehensive monitoring system to track groundwater quality and levels is essential for detecting early signs of seawater intrusion. This system should include regular monitoring of salinity levels, groundwater extraction rates, and other key indicators.
• Implementation of Legal and Policy Frameworks: Strengthening the legal and policy framework governing water use, including groundwater, is essential. This includes the implementation of regulations that limit extraction rates and incentivize the use of alternative water sources.

The coastal aquifers play a vital role in maintaining ecological balance by supporting freshwater ecosystems and biodiversity, fulfilling agricultural needs by providing irrigation water and preserving soil fertility, safeguarding food security for millions living in coastal regions. They also supply safe drinking water, directly contributing to urban growth and human well-being. Commitment to sustainable water governance, strict regulation, and integration of nature-based and technological solutions will ensure that coastal aquifers continue to support ecological and developmental needs while preventing seawater intrusion.

Introduction:

Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) refers to a collection of technologies that capture carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions produced from industrial processes that use fossil fuels or biofuels or directly from the air, and either utilize it for various purposes or store it underground to prevent its release into the atmosphere. This is considered an essential part of efforts to mitigate climate change by reducing the amount of CO₂, a potent greenhouse gas, in the atmosphere. 

Components of CCUS:

• Carbon Capture: The process of capturing CO₂ emissions before they are released into the atmosphere. This can be achieved through different methods:
  • Post-combustion capture: Capturing CO₂ from the flue gas after fuel combustion.
  • Pre-combustion capture: Removing CO₂ before combustion during the process of converting fossil fuels into gas.
  • Oxy-fuel combustion: Using pure oxygen instead of air for combustion to concentrate CO₂ in the exhaust gases.
• Carbon Utilization: Refers to the conversion of captured CO₂ into useful products such as:
  • Enhanced oil recovery (EOR): Injecting CO₂ into oil reservoirs to extract more oil.
  • Carbon-based materials: Producing chemicals, fuels, or construction materials (e.g., carbonates, plastics).
  • Biofuels: Using captured CO₂ to promote algae or other biological processes for biofuel production.
• Carbon Storage: Refers to the long-term storage of CO₂ in underground geological formations, ensuring it doesn’t return to the atmosphere. This is typically done in:
  • Deep saline aquifers: Underground rock formations containing salty water.
  • Depleted oil and gas reservoirs: Once oil and gas have been extracted, the empty reservoirs can store CO₂.
  • Unmineable coal seams: Storing CO₂ in coal seams where it can displace methane, which can then be extracted.

Potential Role of CCUS in Tackling Climate Change:

• Mitigation of Industrial Emissions: Many industries, such as cement, steel, and chemicals, produce significant CO₂ emissions that are difficult to eliminate due to the nature of their processes. CCUS provides a feasible solution to reduce emissions from these sectors without requiring complete industrial overhaul or a transition to alternative technologies.
• Decarbonizing Energy Systems: For sectors that are hard to electrify (e.g., heavy industry and some parts of transportation), CCUS allows the continued use of fossil fuels while capturing and storing the emissions, thus reducing overall emissions.
  • Fossil fuel-based power plants can incorporate CCUS technologies to reduce emissions. In particular, gas-fired plants with carbon capture are seen as potentially more adaptable to provide low-emission energy in the transition away from coal.
• Negative Emissions and Carbon Dioxide Removal (CDR): CCUS, particularly when combined with bioenergy BECCS (Bioenergy with Carbon Capture and Storage), can lead to "negative emissions" where more CO₂ is removed from the atmosphere than is emitted. This can help offset hard-to-abate sectors such as steel, aluminium, cement, chemicals and transportation that are unlikely to reach zero emissions.
  • This negative emissions approach could be vital in achieving global climate goals, including those in the Paris Agreement, which aims to limit global warming to well below 2°C.
• Support for Net-Zero Emissions Goals: To achieve "net-zero" emissions by mid-century, the world may need to rely on CCUS to compensate for the emissions that are extremely costly to eliminate directly, particularly in sectors like aviation, shipping, and cement production.
  • According to the International Energy Agency (IEA), achieving net-zero emissions globally by 2050 will require CCUS to capture 7-10 gigatonnes of CO₂ annually by mid-century (IEA).
• Creating New Economic Opportunities: CCUS can support new industries and technologies that utilize captured CO₂. For example, carbon utilization in the production of synthetic fuels, chemicals, or materials can create jobs and stimulate innovation.
  • Furthermore, the development of CCUS infrastructure, including pipelines, storage sites, and CO₂ transportation networks, can create additional economic opportunities.
• Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) and Energy Security: Using captured CO₂ for EOR can extend the life of oil fields, boosting oil production while simultaneously sequestering CO₂. This could provide a bridging technology that supports energy security during the transition to renewable energy.

Challenges to the Effectiveness of CCUS:

• High Capital Cost: The technology remains expensive, particularly in terms of capture, transportation, and storage infrastructure. The economic feasibility of CCUS depends on carbon pricing, government subsidies, and the market value of CO₂-derived products.
• Identification, Regulatory Mechanism and Monitoring: Identifying suitable storage sites and ensuring long-term regulatory compliance and monitoring are crucial for the success of CCUS. 
• Public Perception and Environmental Safeguards: Local communities may have concerns about the safety of CO₂ storage, particularly regarding leakage contamination and other environmental hazards.

Way Forward: 

• Invest in CCUS technology through climate finance, carbon credits, and public-private partnerships.
• Advocate for government incentives, funding programs, and stable regulation to attract sustainable investment and reduce risk.
• Focus on R&D in hard-to-abate sectors like cement, steel, and chemicals for scalable deployment.
• Build supply chains and infrastructure for CO₂ transport and storage by coordinating among stakeholders.
• Collaborate internationally for knowledge sharing, best practices, capacity building initiatives and market access to enhance competitiveness and project viability.

Introduction: 

 Energy independence is defined as reducing dependence on imported fossil fuels and maximizing domestic, sustainable source. Currently, India is third largest energy consumer in the world. Thus, ensuring energy independence through clean technology by 2047 requires a transition from fossil fuel use.

Biotechnology emerges as a powerful enabler in this shift, fostering greener alternatives and supporting the country’s energy ambitions.Achieving this through clean technology by 2047requires leveraging innovation across renewables and bio-based energy.

Body: 

Pathways to Energy Independence through Clean Technology

• Expansion of Renewables: India has increased its renewable energy capacity to about 227 GW by mid-2025, driven by solar, wind, and hydro projects. Major schemes like the National Solar Mission and wind energy initiatives contribute significantly.
  • India has achieved a landmark in its energy transition journey by reaching 50% of its installed electricity capacity from non-fossil fuel sources—five years ahead of the target set under its Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) to the Paris Agreement.
• Infrastructure Modernization: Upgrading transmission grids, rolling out utility-scale battery storage, and enabling smart infrastructure supports reliable clean energy supply and integration.
• Promotion of Electric Vehicles: Faster adoption of electric vehicles and supporting EV charging infrastructure reduces oil imports and urban emissions.
  • Example,  for clean transport the government has launched the Fame India Scheme. It encourages EV adoption with incentives for vehicles and charging infrastructure.
• Policy Support: Initiatives such as the National Green Hydrogen Mission, renewable purchase obligations, and production-linked incentives have attracted investments and spurred domestic manufacturing.
• Private Sector Initiatives: Reliance Industries is developing one of the world’s largest clean energy hubs in Gujarat, with plans for gigafactories, green hydrogen (3 million tonnes/year by 2032), solar modules, and battery manufacturing.

Role of Biotechnology in Achieving Energy Independence

• Biofuel Production: Biotechnology enables high-yielding biofuel crops and efficient production processes for ethanol and biodiesel. India’s ethanol blending in petrol reached 15% in 2024( India targets 20% by 2025),  cutting crude oil imports, saving foreign exchange, and reducing emissions.
• Waste to Energy: Biotechnological advances in anaerobic digestion and cellulosic ethanol convert agricultural residue, urban biomass, and organic waste into clean biogas and biofuels, addressing both energy needs and waste management.
• Advanced Research: Res earch & Development in algal biofuels, microbial hydrogen, and synthetic biology further expands green energy possibilities and resource circularity.
• Rural Empowerment: Bioenergy production promotes rural employment and income generation, aiding inclusive development while embedding sustainable practices.
• Boost to innovation: India’s bioeconomy grew from $10 billion to $165.75 billion by 2024 and  government targets reaching $300 billion by 2030 under its BioE3 initiative. Successful projects like India’s 2G ethanol plants and biogas infrastructure showcase effective technology translation from lab to field, integrating rural biomass supply chains.

Conclusion

India’s pursuit of energy independence through clean technology is both urgent and strategic, aiming to enhance self-reliance, sustainability, and economic resilience. India’s journey to energy independence through clean technology is marked by ambitious policy measures, rapid renewable energy deployment, and a pivotal contribution from biotechnology. Translating these advances into large-scale, inclusive outcomes will secure a sustainable, resilient, and self-reliant energy future for the nation.

The International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) is an international nuclear fusion research project aimed at demonstrating the feasibility of nuclear fusion as a large-scale and carbon-free source of energy. It’s being constructed in Saint-Paul-lez-Durance, France, and it involves the collaboration of seven member entities: the European Union, China, India, Japan, Russia, South Korea, and the United States.

Prime Minister Narendra Modi and French President Emmanuel Macron made history as the first heads of state to jointly visit the ITER facility highlighting the Indo-French collaboration in the ambitious global pursuit of fusion energy. India has been a significant contributor to ITER project, both in terms of funding and technical expertise. As one of the seven ITER members, India’s involvement is a key part of the collaboration. 

Major contributions of India to ITER

• Components and Hardware: India has taken responsibility for manufacturing and supplying critical components to ITER, including:
  • Cryostat: India designed the cryostat the world’s largest, a 30-meter-tall chamber housing the ITER Tokamak, and built systems to cool the magnets to superconducting temperatures of -269°C, manufactured by Larsen & Toubro (L&T) for the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor (ITER) project in France.
  • Superconducting Magnets: India is involved in the production of superconducting magnets, which are essential for creating the magnetic field that will contain the plasma during fusion reactions. The Toroidal Field Coils (which help confine the plasma) are being manufactured by India.
  • Vacuum Vessel: India is contributing to the construction of the vacuum vessel, which will hold the plasma in the reactor. This is one of the most important components as it needs to withstand the extreme conditions inside the reactor.
  • Diagnostics and Instrumentation: India is providing several diagnostic systems for ITER, such as sensors and instruments used to monitor the plasma, magnetic fields, and other important parameters during experiments.
• In-kind Contributions: As part of its agreement with ITER, India is contributing significant in-kind support, meaning that India is supplying both material resources and technical expertise in the form of equipment and construction. 
• Human Resources and Expertise: India has deployed a large number of scientists and engineers to work on ITER. Indian institutions like the Institute for Plasma Research (IPR), located in Gujarat, have been instrumental in designing and testing components and systems for ITER. Indian researchers are also actively involved in the engineering design, plasma physics research, and material science required for the fusion project.
• Financial Commitment: India, along with the other ITER partners, is financially contributing to the construction and operation of the ITER project. India's share in the overall financial commitment is a significant portion, as part of its contribution to the international collaboration.
• Leadership and Collaboration: India has played a leadership role in several working groups within the ITER project, fostering collaboration between the various international partners. Indian scientists and engineers continue to collaborate on research to improve the performance of fusion reactors, focusing on issues like plasma stability, heat management, and fuel handling.
• Support for Long-Term Goals: India’s participation in ITER is not just about contributing to the reactor’s construction; it is also focused on long-term goals of achieving energy security through sustainable fusion energy. India has a growing energy demand, and fusion power offers a clean, virtually limitless source of energy, aligning with India’s goals for reducing dependence on fossil fuels and reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Implications of ITER

• Clean, Abundant, and Sustainable Energy: Fusion energy produces no greenhouse gases, offering a crucial solution to climate change and helping nations meet net-zero emissions targets.
  
• Reduced Dependence on Fossil Fuels: Fusion could significantly cut reliance on fossil fuels like coal, oil, and natural gas, benefiting countries reliant on energy imports.
• Addressing Energy Scarcity: Fusion fuels like deuterium from seawater and lithium are abundant, ensuring that fusion could meet global energy needs for centuries.
• Decreased Geopolitical Tensions: Fusion’s reliance on locally available resources reduces energy-related geopolitical tensions, promoting a more stable energy market.
• Reduced Risk of Supply Disruptions: With fusion’s reliance on abundant resources, the energy supply becomes more robust and less vulnerable to disruptions.
• Innovation through Collaboration: ITER fosters global collaboration, potentially driving breakthroughs in advanced manufacturing, robotics, and artificial intelligence.
• Minimal Environmental Impact: Fusion produces minimal waste, with far less environmental and radioactive impact than fossil fuel plants or fission reactors, reducing pollution and environmental degradation.

Conclusion 

The ITER project represents a groundbreaking step toward a clean, sustainable, and abundant energy future. As a global collaboration involving countries like India, the project is poised to revolutionize how we produce energy.

Introduction

Supply chain management (SCM) in agriculture involves producing and distributing agricultural products like vegetables, fruits, cereals, pulses, and animal-based items. Effective SCM ensures smooth transition from farm gate to retail, improving food security, reducing wastage, and enhancing the agricultural economy.

Scope of Supply Chain Management of Agricultural Commodities in India 

• Infrastructure & Storage Dimension: Efficient supply chains depend on modern storage, warehousing, and processing facilities to reduce post-harvest losses.By improving logistics, farmers can extend shelf life and ensure year-round availability. 
• Income & Market Linkages Dimension: For farmers, access to fair and remunerative markets is as critical as production. Robust supply chains connect rural producers with urban consumers, eliminating middlemen and enhancing farmers’ income. Linking smallholders to organized retail and export markets can significantly raise their profitability.
• Digital & Technological Dimension: Digital technologies bridge information gaps and make agricultural supply chains more transparent. Platforms like e-NAM integrate mandis across states, enabling transparent bidding and price discovery. Emerging technologies such as AI, Blockchain, and IoT strengthen forecasting, traceability, and smart logistics, reducing inefficiencies and making the agri supply chain future-ready.
• Processing & Value Addition Dimension: Value addition through food processing not only reduces wastage but also increases shelf life, ensures product diversification, and generates rural employment. Formalizing micro-processing enterprises integrates small farmers into the larger agri-business ecosystem, strengthening farm-to-fork supply chains.

Government Initiatives

• The Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojana (PMKSY)
• The Doubling Farmers' Income (DFI)
• e-NAM
• PM-FME scheme

Significance of Supply Chain Management of Agricultural Commodities in India

• SCM is key to achieving SDG-2 (Zero Hunger) and SDG-12 (Responsible Consumption and Production) by strengthening food security, reducing waste, and ensuring climate sustainability. 
• Supply chains create jobs in farming, processing, packaging, transportation, storage, and retail, boosting rural livelihoods.
• A strong supply chain ensures stable availability of agricultural commodities, helping reduce volatility and support nutritional security.
• Better logistics and preservation technologies cut down losses in perishable commodities, improving both farmer income and consumer access.
• Additionally, it supports expanding agri-exports and doubling farmers' income.

Conclusion

Challenges such as inefficiencies in government programs, lack of storage, and transparency hinder SCM. Addressing these requires better planning and technology. Strengthening SCM in India is crucial for improving farmer incomes, enhancing food security, reducing waste, and boosting exports. With robust infrastructure, digital innovation, and inclusive policies, India can become a global agri-value hub, ensuring long-term prosperity and sustainable food security.

Introduction 

High value crops are mainly horticulture crops such as fruits, flowers, spices, vegetables & aromatic plants etc. The value of output and net returns of most of these horticulture crops is higher. 

Factors Influencing the decision of the Farmers on the Selection of High Value Crops in India

• Nature of High-Value Crops: These crops tend to offer higher net returns, which would naturally influence a farmer's decision to select them if the economic returns are attractive.
• Economic Incentives & Market Demand: High-value crops like dragon fruit and advanced banana varieties fetch higher income. Government subsidies and access to better markets encourage adoption.
• Government Schemes & Support: Initiatives like PM Dhan-Dhaanya Krishi Yojana and Mission for Integrated Development of Horticulture (MIDH) promote diversification, organic farming, and post-harvest infrastructure. The allocation of funds through MIDH, including specific financial details for states like Rajasthan, helps farmers access the necessary resources to invest in high-value crop cultivation. 
• Role of FPOs and Cooperatives: Farmer Producer Organizations (FPOs) and cooperatives strengthen bargaining power, ensure collective marketing, and reduce risks in price volatility, motivating farmers to diversify into high-value crops.
• Expansion of Cold Chains & Logistics: Development of cold storage, warehousing, and transport facilities reduces post-harvest losses and ensures better price realization, encouraging investment in perishable high-value crops.
• Climate Resilience & Sustainability: Water scarcity and climate risks push farmers towards less water-intensive, resilient crops like millets and pulses.
• Technological Advancements: Improved crop varieties (cowpea, okra) and digital tools (procurement apps) enhance productivity and informed decision-making. Example, ‘Per Drop More Crop’.
• Community Influence: Peer networks and local success stories strongly guide crop choices.

Conclusion

With the help of such initiatives, farmers are better equipped to make informed decisions that align with both their economic goals and regional capabilities. By continuously improving these factors, India’s agricultural sector is poised to further strengthen its capacity for high-value crop cultivation, thereby boosting farmers' incomes and ensuring sustainable agricultural growth.

Introduction: 

Ans.  Recently, there has been a shift from free trade and multilateralism to protectionism and bilateralism. While free trade promotes global cooperation and open markets through reduced trade barriers and common rules, protectionism involves trade restrictions to safeguard domestic industries. Bilateralism focuses on exclusive trade agreements between two nations, often favoring specific terms. This shift presents several challenges for countries, including India.

In August 2025, the U.S. under President Trump imposed steep 50% tariffs on Indian exports impacting key sectors like textiles, gems, jewellery, seafood, and footwear, and jeopardizing jobs and export revenues. 

Body: 

 Challenges before Indian Economy

• Restricted Market Access: Protectionist policies, such as tariffs and trade barriers, limit India’s access to international markets, affecting exports.
  • Example,  Indian agricultural exports like rice, marine products, and mangoes often face strict sanitary and phytosanitary (SPS) standards in markets like the European Union (EU) and the United States.
    
• Increased Costs for Businesses: Disruption of global supply chains and higher trade costs make manufacturing and imports more expensive for Indian companies.
  • Example, With the Russia-Ukraine conflict, shipping costs and insurance premiums for crude oil rose sharply. As India imports 85% of its crude oil, this raised costs affected the economy. across the economy.
• Unequal Trade Terms: Bilateral agreements may favor more powerful economies, potentially disadvantaging India in trade negotiations.
  • Example, India faced significant trade imbalances with several bilateral partners. Between 2017 and 2022, India's imports from Free Trade Agreement (FTA) partners increased by 82%, while exports grew by only 31% .
    
• Impact on Export-Led Growth: India’s economic growth, driven by exports, could be hindered by the rise of protectionism and fragmentation of global trade.The Foreign Trade Policy (FTP) 2023 aims to boost India's exports to USD 2 trillion by 2030.
  
• Uncertainty in Investments: Protectionist measures may create an unstable business environment, leading to reduced foreign direct investment (FDI) inflows.

Measures to Overcome these Challenges

• Strengthening Bilateral and Regional Trade Agreements: India actively pursued bilateral and regional trade agreements, such as the Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA) with Japan, Comprehensive Economic and Trade Agreement (CETA)with United Kingdom  and Free Trade Agreements (FTAs) with ASEAN and other countries, to secure preferential market access and reduce the impact of protectionist policies.
• Atmanirbhar Bharat and Make in India: Both aim to cut import dependence and strengthen India’s global competitiveness. Atmanirbhar Bharat focuses on self-reliance in key sectors like defence, electronics, and agriculture, while Make in India complements it by boosting manufacturing, attracting FDI, and enhancing export potential.
  
• Production Linked Incentive (PLI) Scheme: Launched in 2020, it aims  to boost domestic manufacturing, attract investments, reduce imports, and enhance exports.
  
• Diversification of Export Markets: To reduce reliance on traditional markets, India has diversified its export destinations, reaching out to emerging economies in Africa, Latin America, and East Asia.
  
• Enhancing Domestic Infrastructure and Logistics: India has invested significantly in infrastructure and logistics to reduce transaction costs, enhance export capabilities, and improve trade efficiency, which helps offset tariff barriers imposed by protectionist nations.
  
• Leveraging Digital Trade and Technology: India has embraced digital trade by promoting the adoption of e-commerce, digital payments, and new-age technologies like AI and blockchain, which enhance trade facilitation and help bypass traditional protectionist barriers.
• Strengthening WTO Engagement: India continues to actively engage with the World Trade Organization (WTO) to advocate for fair trade practices, protect its trade interests, and address global protectionism through multilateral channels.

Conclusion 

India must balance global integration with domestic resilience by promoting self-reliance, diversifying trade partnerships, and strengthening global negotiations. A sustainable, competitive economy will help India navigate rising protectionism effectively.

Introduction

Human Development Index (HDI) is part of the Human Development Report (HDR) that is published by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). India has been ranked 130th out of 193 countries and territories in the 2025 HDR.

Difference between HDI and IHDI

India: 2025 Report (for the year 2023)

• Falls in the category of ‘medium human development’.
• HDI Value: 0.685
• IHDI: Value: 0.475; overall loss: 30.7%; difference from HDI rank: -10 

IHDI as a Better Indicator of Inclusive Growth

• Accounts for Inequality: Unlike HDI, IHDI reflects not just national averages but the disparities in access to these dimensions across different population groups. 
  • Example: India’s National Food Security Act (NFSA), 2013 ensures subsidized food grains for the poor, addressing inequality in access to nutrition.
• Loss Due to Inequality: Countries with high inequality will have a lower IHDI than their HDI, showing that the benefits of growth are not being equally shared. 
  • Example: Aspirational Districts Programme (ADP) launched in 2018 targets lagging districts by focusing on health, education, and financial inclusion, directly addressing regional inequalities.
• Policy Implications: Since IHDI highlights the impact of inequality on human development, policymakers can focus on initiatives that promote more equitable distribution of resources and opportunities. 
  • Example: PM-KISAN (Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi) provides direct income support to farmers, enabling more equitable access to resources.

Conclusion

While HDI highlights human development, IHDI better reflects its equitable distribution. The HDR 2025 emphasizes that inclusion is essential for sustainable growth. As Amartya Sen said, “Development is freedom”—true progress comes only through inclusive and equitable development.