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UNESCO

“Since wars begin in the minds of men and women, it is in the minds of men and women that the defences of peace must be constructed” -...

30 Apr 2020 Important Institution
Tribunals

Tribunal is a quasi-judicial institution that is set up to deal with problems such as resolving administrative or tax-related disputes. It performs a...

26 Nov 2019 Important Institution
Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership

The Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) is a mega-regional economic agreement being negotiated since 2012, between ASEAN and Free...

12 Nov 2019 Important Institution
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) is the largest research and development (R&D) organisation in India. CSIR has a pan-India...

05 Nov 2019 Important Institution
UNICEF

United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) is a special program of the United Nations (UN) devoted to aiding national efforts to improve the...

29 Oct 2019 Important Institution
National Investigation Agency

The National Investigation Agency (NIA) was constituted under the National Investigation Agency (NIA) Act, 2008. It is a central agency to...

22 Oct 2019 Important Institution
International Labour Organization

The International Labour Organization (ILO) celebrated its 100th anniversary in 2019. It is the only tripartite U.N. agency. It brings together...

15 Oct 2019 Important Institution
G-7

The Group of Seven (G-7) is an informal bloc of industrialized democracies—France, Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom, Japan, the United...

01 Oct 2019 Important Institution
Arctic Council

The Arctic Council is the leading intergovernmental forum promoting cooperation, coordination and interaction among the Arctic States, Arctic...

17 Sep 2019 Important Institution
Supreme Court of India

The Supreme Court of India is the highest judicial court and the final court of appeal under the Constitution of India, the highest constitutional...

11 Sep 2019 Important Institution
South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)

The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was established with the signing of the SAARC Charter in Dhaka on 8 December...

03 Sep 2019 Important Institution
Competition Commission of India

Competition Commission of India (CCI) is a statutory body of the Government of India responsible for enforcing the Competition Act, 2002, it was duly...

27 Aug 2019 Important Institution
TRAFFIC

The TRAFFIC, the Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network, is a leading non-governmental organisation working on wildlife trade in the context of both...

20 Aug 2019 Important Institution
Law Commission of India

Introduction Law Commission of India is neither a constitutional body nor a statutory body, it is an executive body established by an order of the...

13 Aug 2019 Important Institution
CITES

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is an international agreement to which States and...

06 Aug 2019 Important Institution
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)

The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is the apex statutory body for disaster management in India. The NDMA was formally constituted...

30 Jul 2019 Important Institution
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)

The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is an independent agency of the executive branch of the United States federal government...

23 Jul 2019 Important Institution
APEDA & TRIFED

APEDA Introduction The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) was established by the Government of India...

17 Jul 2019 Important Institution
World Health Organization (WHO)

World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations’ specialized agency for Health was founded in 1948. Its headquarters are situated in...

09 Jul 2019 Important Institution
Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank

The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) is a multilateral development bank with a mission to improve social and economic outcomes in...

25 Jun 2019 Important Institution

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		'title' => 'UNESCO',
		'description' => '<p>&ldquo;Since wars begin in the minds of men and women, it is in the minds of men and women that the defences of peace must be constructed&rdquo; - UNESCO</p>
<p><strong>United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)</strong> is a specialized agency of the <strong><a href="/important-institutions/drishti-specials-important-institutions-international-institution/united-nations-1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">United Nations (UN)</a></strong>. It seeks to <strong>build peace through international cooperation in Education, the Sciences and Culture.</strong></p>
<p>It is also a member of the <strong>United Nations Sustainable Development Group (UNSDG),</strong> a coalition of UN agencies and organizations aimed at fulfilling the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>UNESCO&rsquo;s <strong>Headquarters</strong> are located in <strong>Paris</strong> and the Organization has more than 50 field offices around the world.</li>
<li>It has <strong>193 Members and 11 Associate Members</strong> (As of April 2020) and is governed by the General Conference and the Executive Board.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Three UNESCO member states are not UN members: <strong>Cook Islands, Niue, and Palestine.</strong></li>
<li>While three UN member states <strong>(Israel, Liechtenstein, United States)</strong> are not UNESCO members.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Objectives</h3>
<p>UNESCO focuses on a set of objectives such as:</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Attaining quality education for all and lifelong learning</li>
<li>Mobilizing science knowledge and policy for sustainable development</li>
<li>Addressing emerging social and ethical challenges</li>
<li>Fostering cultural diversity, intercultural dialogue and a culture of peace</li>
<li>Building inclusive knowledge societies through information and communication</li>
<li>Focuses on global priority areas - <strong>&ldquo;Africa&rdquo; and &ldquo;Gender Equality&rdquo;.</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>History</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In 1942, during the Second World War, the governments of the European countries, which were confronting Germany and its allies, met in the United Kingdom for the <strong>Conference of Allied Ministers of Education (CAME).</strong></li>
<li>Upon the proposal of CAME, a United Nations Conference for the establishment of an educational and cultural organization was convened in London in November 1945.</li>
<li>At the end of the conference, UNESCO was founded on 16 November 1945.</li>
<li>The <strong>first session</strong> of the General Conference of UNESCO was held in<strong> Paris</strong> during November-December of 1946.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Areas of Specialization of UNESCO</h3>
<p><strong>Education Transforms Lives</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Education transforms lives and is at the heart of UNESCO&rsquo;s mission to build peace, eradicate poverty and drive sustainable development.</li>
<li>The Organization is the only United Nations agency with a mandate to cover all aspects of education.</li>
<li>It has been entrusted to <strong>lead the Global Education 2030 Agenda</strong> through Sustainable Development Goal - 4. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>&lsquo;Education 2030 Framework for Action&rsquo; (Incheon Declaration)</strong> is the roadmap to achieve the global education 2030 agenda..</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Its work encompasses educational development from pre-school to higher education and beyond.</li>
<li>Themes include global citizenship and sustainable development, human rights and gender equality, health and HIV and AIDS, as well as technical and vocational skills development.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Protecting Our Heritage and Fostering Creativity</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It is becoming a fact that no development can be sustainable without a strong culture component.</li>
<li>UNESCO has adopted a <strong>three-pronged approach</strong> to make culture takes it rightful place in development strategies and processes:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Spearheads worldwide advocacy</strong> for culture and development.</li>
<li><strong>Engages with the international community</strong> to set clear policies and legal frameworks</li>
<li>Works on the ground to <strong>support governments and local stakeholders</strong> to safeguard heritage, strengthen creative industries and encourage cultural pluralism.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Some important conventions and International treaties of UNESCO to protect and safeguard the world&rsquo;s cultural and natural heritage:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Convention on the Protection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural Expressions (2005)</li>
<li>The Convention for the Safeguarding of the Intangible Cultural Heritage (2003)</li>
<li>The Universal Declaration on Cultural Diversity (2001)</li>
<li>The Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage (2001)</li>
<li>The Convention for the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (1972)</li>
<li>The Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Traffic of Cultural Property (1970)</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Science for a Sustainable Future</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Science equips us to find solutions to today&rsquo;s acute economic, social and environmental challenges and to achieving sustainable development and greener societies.</li>
<li>UNESCO works to assist countries to invest in Science, Technology and Innovation (STI), to develop national science policies, to reform their science systems and to build capacity to monitor and evaluate performance through STI indicators..</li>
<li>Also, UNESCO works with its member states to foster informed decisions about the use of science and technology, in particular in the field of bioethics.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Social and Human Sciences</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>UNESCO helps to enable people to create and use knowledge for just and inclusive societies, support them in understanding each other and working together to build lasting peace.</li>
<li>It promotes mutual understanding among member states through its intergovernmental Programme like <strong>Management of Social Transformations (MOST),</strong> its <strong>Youth Programme</strong> and the<strong> Culture of Peace and Non-Violence Programme</strong> which include initiatives for democracy and global citizenship, intercultural dialogue, peace-building.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Communication and Information</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>UNESCO <strong>advances freedom of expression</strong> and the safety of journalists, combats online hate speech, as well as disinformation and misinformation through awareness raising initiatives.</li>
<li>It also supports universal access to information and knowledge through promoting Open Solutions, including Open Educational Resources, access for marginalized people, and multilingualism in Cyberspace.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Global Priorities Of UNESCO - &lsquo;Africa&rsquo; and &lsquo;Gender Equality&rsquo;</h3>
<p><strong>Africa</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>UNESCO is attentive to 54 African countries with a stronger and better-targeted strategy.</li>
<li>The adoption of the <strong>African Union Agenda 2063</strong> and the <strong>2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development</strong> paving the ground for the African Economic Community and the African Renaissance.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Gender Equality</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>UNESCO holds that women and men must enjoy equal opportunities, choices, capabilities, power and knowledge as equal citizens.</li>
<li>Equipping girls and boys, women and men with the knowledge, values, attitudes and skills to tackle gender disparities is a precondition to building a sustainable future for all.</li>
<li>Some important initiatives to achieve the objective of Gender equality are: <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>UNESCO Priority Gender Equality Action Plan</li>
<li>Gender Equality Tools</li>
<li>Gender Views</li>
<li>Gender-related UNESCO Chairs and Networks</li>
<li>UNESCO Prize for Girls&rsquo; and Women&rsquo;s Education</li>
<li>UNESCO Youth Mobile</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Some of the Important Initiatives of UNESCO</h3>
<p><strong>World Heritage Convention and List</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>World Heritage Convention -1972 links together the concepts of nature conservation and the preservation of cultural properties.</li>
<li>The Convention defines the kind of natural or cultural sites (World Heritage Sites) which can be considered for inscription on the <strong>World Heritage List.</strong></li>
<li>The States Parties of convention are encouraged to integrate the protection of the cultural and natural heritage into regional planning programmes, set up staff and services at their sites, undertake scientific and technical conservation research.</li>
<li>It explains how the <strong>World Heritage Fund</strong> is to be used and managed.</li>
<li>Globally there are 1121 World Heritage sites in the 167 countries. Meanwhile, India has 38 <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/world-heritage-sites-in-india" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>World Heritage Sites</strong></a> that include 30 Cultural properties, 7 Natural properties and 1 mixed site</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Man and the Biosphere (MAB) Programme</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It is an<strong> intergovernmental scientific programme</strong> that aims to establish a scientific basis for enhancing the relationship between people and their environments.</li>
<li>It promotes innovative approaches to economic development that are socially and culturally appropriate and environmentally sustainable.</li>
<li>The <strong>World Network of Biosphere Reserves</strong> currently counts 701 sites in 124 countries all over the world, including 21 transboundary sites.</li>
<li>India has <a href="/to-the-points/paper3/biosphere-reserves-in-india" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>18 Biosphere reserves</strong></a> out of which 11 have been recognized internationally under Man and Biosphere (MAB) program:</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>International Geoscience and Global Geoparks Programme (IGGP)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>International Geoscience Programme (IGCP)</strong> harnesses the intellectual capacity of a worldwide network of geoscientists to lay the foundation for our planet&rsquo;s future, focusing on responsible resource extraction, natural hazard resilience and preparedness, and adaptability in the era of a changing climate.</li>
<li><strong>UNESCO Global Geoparks (UGGp)</strong> are laboratories for sustainable development which promote the recognition and management of Earth heritage, and the sustainability of local communities. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>As of April 2019, there are 147 UNESCO Global Geoparks within 41 Member States, covering a total area of 288,000 km&sup2;</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>International Hydrological Programme (IHP)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Intergovernmental Hydrological Programme (IHP) is the only intergovernmental programme of the United Nations system devoted to water research and management, and related education and capacity development</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The growing global water crisis threatens the security, stability and environmental sustainability of developing nations.</li>
<li>The programme focuses on assessing the developing situation of freshwater throughout the world. It also coordinates the work of 31 UN-Water members and partners in the <strong>World Water Development Report (WWDR).</strong></li>
</ul>
<p><strong>International Basic Sciences Programme (IBSP)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It is an international multidisciplinary programme established by UNESCO Member States in order to reinforce intergovernmental cooperation in science to strengthen national capacities in the basic sciences and science education.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Important Reports of UNESCO</h3>
<p><strong>UNESCO Science Report</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>UNESCO Science Report maps Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) governance around the world on a regular basis. The report is published every five years, on 10 November, to mark <strong>World Science Day for Peace and Development.</strong></li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Global Education Monitoring Report</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Global Education Monitoring (GEM) Report carries out its assessment of progress towards the Sustainable Development Goal on education (SDG4) and its 10 targets, as well as other related education targets in the SDG agenda.</li>
<li>The report examines different accountability mechanisms that are used to hold governments, schools, teachers, parents, the international community, and the private sector accountable for inclusive, equitable and quality education.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>McBride Report of 1980</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The comprehensive report of the MacBride Commission is also named<strong> &ldquo;Many Voices, OneWorld&rdquo;.</strong></li>
<li>It analyzed communication problems in modern societies, particularly relating to mass media and news, consider the emergence of new technologies, and to suggest a kind of communication order (<strong>New World Information and Communication Order</strong>) to diminish these problems to further peace and human development</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>UNESCO State of the Education Report for India: Children With Disabilities</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The 2019 report is the first edition of the annual report to be published by UNESCO in India.</li>
<li>It highlights accomplishments and challenges with regards to the right to education of children with disabilities (CWDs).</li>
<li>UNESCO&rsquo;s State of the Education Report 2019 is expected to help the education system better respond to the learning needs of CWDs. This will enable significant progress towards our collective objective of leaving no one behind and provide to all children and youth equitable opportunities for quality learning.</li>
</ul>
<h3>UNESCO And INDIA</h3>
<p><strong>Indian National Commission for Cooperation with UNESCO (INCCU)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India has been a member of the UNESCO since its inception in 1946.</li>
<li>UNESCO constitution requires that each Member State should have a principle body that shall work with the Organization. Thus, in India, <strong>Indian National Commission for Cooperation with UNESCO (INCCU)</strong> was commissioned.</li>
<li>UNESCO has two Offices in India<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The<strong> New Delhi cluster office</strong> for eleven countries in South and Central Asia (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Iran, Maldives, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka)</li>
<li>The <strong>MGIEP &ndash; the Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Education for Peace</strong> and Sustainable Development fully supported and funded by the Government of India.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>UNESCO&rsquo;s International Prizes and India</h3>
<p><strong>UNESCO-Madanjeet Singh Prize for the Promotion of Tolerance and Non-Violence</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It is established through the generous donation of the UNESCO Goodwill Ambassador, Indian artist, writer and diplomat Mr Madanjeet Singh, the prize honors his lifelong commitment to the cause of peace and tolerance.</li>
<li>The creation of the Prize in 1995 marked the United Nations Year for Tolerance and the 125<sup>th</sup> anniversary of the birth of Mahatma Gandhi.</li>
<li>Since 1996, the Prize has been awarded every two years and, since 2002, it amounts to US $ 100,000.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>The UNESCO Kalinga Prize for the Popularization of Science</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It is an international distinction created by UNESCO in 1951 following a donation from Mr Bijoyanand Patnaik, Founder and President of the Kalinga Foundation Trust in India.</li>
</ul>
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		'category_id' => (int) 63,
		'title' => 'Tribunals',
		'description' => '<p>Tribunal is a <strong>quasi-judicial institution</strong> that is set up to deal with problems such as resolving administrative or tax-related disputes. It performs a number of functions like <strong>adjudicating disputes, determining rights between contesting parties, making an administrative decision, reviewing an existing administrative decision</strong> and so forth.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The term &lsquo;Tribunal&rsquo; is derived from the word &lsquo;Tribunes&rsquo;, which means <strong>&lsquo;Magistrates of the Classical Roman Republic&rsquo;.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Tribunal is referred to as the <strong>office of the &lsquo;Tribunes&rsquo;</strong> i.e., a Roman official under the monarchy and the republic with the function of protecting the citizen from arbitrary action by the aristocrat magistrates.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>A Tribunal, generally, is any person or institution having an authority to judge, adjudicate on, or to determine claims or disputes &ndash; whether or not it is called a tribunal in its title.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Need of Tribunal</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>To overcome the situation that arose due to the pendency of cases in various Courts, domestic tribunals and other Tribunals have been established under different Statutes, hereinafter referred to as the Tribunals.</li>
<li>The Tribunals were set up to <strong>reduce</strong> the <strong>workload of courts,</strong> to <strong>expedite decisions</strong> and to<strong> provide a forum</strong> which would be manned by lawyers and experts in the areas falling under the jurisdiction of the Tribunal.</li>
<li>The tribunals perform an important and specialised role in justice mechanism. They take a load off the already overburdened courts. They hear disputes related to the environment, armed forces, tax and administrative issues.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Constitutional Provisions</h3>
<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1574771699_image1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1574771699_image1.jpg" width="427" height="305" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" caption="false" /></a></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Tribunals were not part of the original constitution, it was incorporated in the Indian Constitution by <strong>42<sup>nd</sup> Amendment Act, 1976.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Article 323-A</strong> deals with Administrative Tribunals.</li>
<li><strong>Article 323-B</strong> deals with tribunals for other matters.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Under <strong>Article 323 B,</strong> the Parliament and the state legislatures are authorised to provide for the establishment of tribunals for the adjudication of disputes relating to the following matters:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Taxation</li>
<li>Foreign exchange, import and export</li>
<li>Industrial and labour</li>
<li>Land reforms</li>
<li>Ceiling on urban property</li>
<li>Elections to Parliament and state legislatures</li>
<li>Food stuff</li>
<li>Rent and tenancy rights</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Articles 323 A and 323 B differ in the following three aspects:</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>While<strong> Article 323 A</strong> contemplates the establishment of tribunals for public service matters only, <strong>Article 323 B</strong> contemplates the establishment of tribunals for certain other matters (mentioned above).</li>
<li>While tribunals under<strong> Article 323 A</strong> can be established only by Parliament, tribunals under <strong>Article 323 B</strong> can be established both by Parliament and state legislatures with respect to matters falling within their legislative competence.</li>
<li>Under<strong> Article 323 A,</strong> only one tribunal for the Centre and one for each state or two or more states may be established. There is no question of the hierarchy of tribunals, whereas under <strong>Article 323 B</strong> a hierarchy of tribunals may be created.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Article 262:</strong> The Indian Constitution provides a role for the Central government in adjudicating conflicts surrounding inter-state rivers that arise among the state/regional governments.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Tribunals in India</h3>
<p><strong>Administrative Tribunals</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Administrative Tribunals was set-up by an act of Parliament, <strong>Administrative Tribunals Act, 1985.</strong> It owes its origin to<strong> Article 323 A</strong> of the Constitution.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It adjudicates disputes and complaints with respect to recruitment and conditions of service of <strong>persons appointed to the public service </strong>and <strong>posts in connection with the affairs of the Union and the States.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The Administrative Tribunals Act, 1985 provides for three types of tribunals:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Central Government establishes an administrative tribunal called the <strong>Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT).</strong></li>
<li>The Central Government may, upon receipt of a request in this behalf from any<strong> State Government,</strong> establish an administrative tribunal for such State employees.</li>
<li>Two or more States might ask for a joint tribunal, which is called the <strong>Joint Administrative Tribunal (JAT),</strong> which exercises powers of the administrative tribunals for such States.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>There are tribunals for settling various administrative and tax-related disputes, including <strong>Central Administrative Tribunal (CAT), Income Tax Appellate Tribunal (ITAT), Customs, Excise and Service Tax Appellate Tribunal (CESTAT), National Green Tribunal (NGT), Competition Appellate Tribunal (COMPAT)</strong> and<strong> Securities Appellate Tribunal (SAT), </strong>among others.</li>
</ul>
<p><em>Central Administrative Tribunal</em></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It has jurisdiction to deal with <strong>service matters</strong> pertaining to the Central Government employees or of any Union Territory, or local or other government under the control of the Government of India, or of a corporation owned or controlled by the Central Government.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The CAT was set-up on 1 November 1985.</li>
<li>It has 17 regular benches, 15 of which operate at the<strong> principal seats of High Courts</strong> and the remaining two at <strong>Jaipur and Lucknow.</strong></li>
<li>These Benches also hold <strong>circuit sittings</strong> at other seats of High Courts. The tribunal consists of a<strong> Chairman, Vice-Chairman and Members.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The Members are drawn, <strong>both from judicial as well as administrative streams</strong> so as to give the Tribunal the benefit of expertise both in legal and administrative spheres.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The appeals against the orders of an <strong>Administrative Tribunal</strong> shall lie before the <strong>Division Bench</strong> of the concerned High Court.</li>
</ul>
<p><em>State Administrative Tribunal</em></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Article 323 B empowers the state legislatures to set up tribunals for various matters like levy, assessment, collection and enforcement of any of the tax matters connected with land reforms covered by Article 31A.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Water Disputes Tribunal</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Parliament has enacted <strong>Inter-State River Water Disputes (ISRWD) Act, 1956</strong> have formed various <strong>Water Disputes Tribunal</strong> for adjudication of disputes relating to waters of inter-State rivers and river valleys thereof.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Standalone Tribunal:</strong> The Inter-State River Water Disputes (Amendment) Bill, 2019 is passed by Parliament for amending the existing ISRWD Act, 1956 to constitute a <strong>standalone Tribunal</strong> to remove with the need to set up a separate Tribunal for each water dispute which is invariably a time-consuming process.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Armed Forces Tribunal (AFT)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It is a military tribunal in India. It was established under the <strong>Armed Forces Tribunal Act, 2007.</strong></li>
<li>It has provided the power for the adjudication or trial by AFT of disputes and complaints with respect to commission, appointments, enrolments and conditions of service in respect of persons subject to the <strong>Army Act, 1950, The Navy Act, 1957 and the Air Force Act, 1950.</strong></li>
<li>Besides the <strong>Principal Bench in New Delhi,</strong> AFT has Regional Benches at Chandigarh, Lucknow, Kolkata, Guwahati, Chennai, Kochi, Mumbai and Jaipur.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Each Bench comprises of a Judicial Member and an Administrative Member.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The<strong> Judicial Members</strong> are <strong>retired High Court Judges</strong> and<strong> Administrative Members</strong> are<strong> retired Members</strong> of the<strong> Armed Forces</strong> who have held the rank of <strong>Major General/ equivalent</strong> or above for a period of three years or more,<strong> Judge Advocate General (JAG),</strong> who have held the appointment for at least one year are also entitled to be appointed as the Administrative Member.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>National Green Tribunal (NGT)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The <strong>National Environment Tribunal Act, 1995 </strong>and<strong> National Environment Appellate Authority Act, 1997</strong> were found to be inadequate giving rise to demand for an institution to deal with environmental cases more efficiently and effectively.</li>
<li>The Law Commission in its 186th Report suggested multi-faceted Courts with judicial and technical inputs referring to the practice of environmental Courts in Australia and New Zealand.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>As a result NGT was formed as a special fast-track, quasi-judicial body comprising of judges and environment experts to ensure expeditious disposal of cases.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The National Green Tribunal was established in 2010 under the <strong>National Green Tribunal Act 2010 </strong>as a <strong>statutory body.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It was setup for effective and expeditious disposal of cases relating to <strong>environmental protection</strong> and<strong> conservation of forests and other natural resources.</strong></li>
<li>It also ensures enforcement of any legal right relating to environment and giving relief and compensation for damages to persons and property.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The Tribunal is mandated to make and endeavour for disposal of applications or appeals finally<strong> within 6 months</strong> of filing of the same.</li>
<li>Initially, the NGT is proposed to be set up at five places of sittings and will follow circuit procedure for making itself more accessible.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>New Delhi</strong> is the<strong> Principal Place of Sitting</strong> of the Tribunal and <strong>Bhopal, Pune, Kolkata and Chennai</strong> shall be the other four place of sitting of the Tribunal.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Income Tax Appellate Tribunal</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Section 252 of the Income Tax Act, 1961</strong> provides that the Central Government shall constitute an <strong>Appellate Tribunal</strong> consisting of many Judicial Members and Accountant members as it thinks fit to exercise the powers and functions conferred on the Tribunal by the Act.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Characteristics of Administrative Tribunals</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Administrative Tribunal is a creation of a statute.</li>
<li>An Administrative Tribunal is vested in the judicial power of the State and thereby performs <strong>quasi-judicial functions</strong> as distinguished from pure <strong>administrative functions.</strong></li>
<li>Administrative Tribunal is bound to act judicially and follow the principles of <strong>natural justice.</strong></li>
<li>It is required to act openly, fairly and impartially.</li>
<li>An Administrative Tribunal is <strong>not bound</strong> by the strict rules of<strong> procedure and evidence prescribed by the civil procedure court.</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>Merging of Tribunals</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The <strong>Finance Act of 2017</strong> merged eight tribunals according to functional similarity. The list of the tribunals that have been merged are given below:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong>Employees Provident Fund Appellate Tribunal </strong>with<strong> The Industrial Tribunal.</strong></li>
<li><strong>The Copyright Board </strong>with<strong> The Intellectual Property Appellate Board .</strong></li>
<li><strong>The Railways Rates Tribunal</strong> with<strong> The Railways Claims Tribunal.</strong></li>
<li><strong>The Appellate Tribunal for Foreign Exchange with The Appellate Tribunal (Smugglers and Foreign Exchange Manipulators (Forfeiture of Property) Act, 1976.</strong></li>
<li><strong>The National Highways Tribunal </strong>with<strong> The Airport Appellate Tribunal.</strong></li>
<li><strong>The Cyber Appellate Tribunal</strong> and<strong> The Airports Economic Regulatory Authority Appellate Tribunal </strong>with<strong> The Settlement and Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT) .</strong></li>
<li><strong>The Competition Appellate Tribunal </strong>with<strong> the National Company Law Appellate Tribunal.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Difference Between Tribunal and Court</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Administrative Tribunals and Ordinary Courts both deal with the disputes between the parties which affects the rights of the subjects.</li>
<li>Administrative Tribunal is not a court. Some notable differences between a court and Administrative Tribunal are as follows -</li>
</ul>
<table border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse; background-color: #e0f8ff;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 75px; height: 19px; background-color: #0785ab; text-align: center;"><span style="color: #ffffff;"><strong>No.</strong></span></td>
<td style="width: 550px; height: 19px; text-align: center; background-color: #0785ab;"><span style="color: #ffffff;"><strong>Court of Law</strong></span></td>
<td style="width: 631px; height: 19px; text-align: center; background-color: #0785ab;"><span style="color: #ffffff;"><strong>Tribunal</strong></span></td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 67px;">
<td style="width: 75px; height: 67px; background-color: #e0f8ff; text-align: center;"><strong>1.</strong></td>
<td style="width: 550px; height: 67px; background-color: #e0f8ff;">A court of law is a part of the <strong>traditional judicial system</strong> whereby judicial powers are derived from the state.</td>
<td style="width: 631px; height: 67px; background-color: #e0f8ff;">
<p>An Administrative Tribunal is an <strong>agency created by the statute</strong> and invested with judicial power.</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 99px;">
<td style="width: 75px; height: 99px; background-color: #e0f8ff; text-align: center;"><strong>2.</strong></td>
<td style="width: 550px; height: 99px; background-color: #e0f8ff;">
<p>The Civil Courts have judicial power to try all <strong>suits of a civil nature</strong> unless the cognizance is expressly or impliedly barred.</p>
</td>
<td style="width: 631px; height: 99px; background-color: #e0f8ff;">Tribunal is also known as the Quasi-judicial body. Tribunals have the power to try cases of<strong> special matter which are conferred on them by statutes</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 99px;">
<td style="width: 75px; height: 99px; background-color: #e0f8ff; text-align: center;">
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>3.</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 550px; height: 99px; background-color: #e0f8ff;">Judges of the ordinary courts of law are independent of the executive in respect of their tenure, terms and conditions of service etc. <strong>Judiciary is independent of Executive</strong></td>
<td style="width: 631px; height: 99px; background-color: #e0f8ff;">Tenure, terms and conditions of the services of the members of <strong>Administrative Tribunal are entirely in the hands of Executive</strong> (government).</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 99px;">
<td style="width: 75px; height: 99px; background-color: #e0f8ff; text-align: center;"><strong>4.</strong></td>
<td style="width: 550px; height: 99px; background-color: #e0f8ff;">
<p>The presiding officer of the <strong>court of law is trained in law.</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 631px; height: 99px; background-color: #e0f8ff;">
<p>The president or a member of the Tribunal may not be trained as well in law. He may be an <strong>expert in the field of Administrative matters.</strong></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 67px;">
<td style="width: 75px; height: 67px; background-color: #e0f8ff; text-align: center;"><strong>5.</strong></td>
<td style="width: 550px; height: 67px; background-color: #e0f8ff;">
<p>A judge of a court of law <strong>must be impartial</strong> who is not interested in the matter directly or indirectly.</p>
</td>
<td style="width: 631px; height: 67px; background-color: #e0f8ff;">An Administrative Tribunal <strong>may be a party to the dispute</strong> to be decided by it.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 75px; height: 19px; background-color: #e0f8ff; text-align: center;">
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>6.</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 550px; height: 19px; background-color: #e0f8ff;">A court of law is bound by all the <strong>rules of evidence and procedure.</strong></td>
<td style="width: 631px; height: 19px; background-color: #e0f8ff;">
<p>An Administrative Tribunal is not bound by rules but bound by the <strong>principles of nature of Justice.</strong></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 115px;">
<td style="width: 75px; height: 115px; background-color: #e0f8ff; text-align: center;">
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>7.</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 550px; height: 115px; background-color: #e0f8ff;">
<p>Court must decide all questions <strong>objectively</strong> on the basis of evidence and materials on record.</p>
</td>
<td style="width: 631px; height: 115px; background-color: #e0f8ff;">
<p>Administrative Tribunal may decide questions by taking into account departmental policy, the decision of Administrative Tribunal may <strong>be subjective rather than objective.</strong></p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 35px;">
<td style="width: 75px; height: 35px; background-color: #e0f8ff; text-align: center;">
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>8.</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 550px; height: 35px; background-color: #e0f8ff;">A court of law can decide <strong>vires of a legislation</strong></td>
<td style="width: 631px; height: 35px; background-color: #e0f8ff;">
<p>Administrative Tribunal cannot do so</p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
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		'title' => 'Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership',
		'description' => '<p>The Regional Comprehensive Economic Partnership (RCEP) is a mega-regional economic agreement being negotiated since 2012, between <strong>ASEAN and Free Trade Agreement (FTA) member partners.</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Membership</strong></li>
</ul>
<table border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 0%; height: 208px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 19.7719%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;"><strong>ASEAN Members</strong></td>
<td style="width: 41.981%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;"><strong>FTA Partners</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 19.7719%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;">Indonesia&nbsp;</td>
<td style="width: 41.981%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;">Australia</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 19.7719%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;">Malaysia&nbsp;</td>
<td style="width: 41.981%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;">China</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 19.7719%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;">Philippines&nbsp;</td>
<td style="width: 41.981%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;">Japan</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 19.7719%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;">Singapore</td>
<td style="width: 41.981%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;">New Zealand</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 19.7719%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;">
<p>Thailand</p>
</td>
<td style="width: 41.981%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;">South Korea</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 19.7719%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;">Brunei</td>
<td style="width: 41.981%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;"></td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 19.7719%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;">
<p>Vietnam</p>
</td>
<td style="width: 41.981%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;"></td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 19.7719%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;">Laos</td>
<td style="width: 41.981%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;"></td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 19.7719%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;">
<p>Myanmar</p>
</td>
<td style="width: 41.981%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;"></td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 19.7719%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;">
<p>Cambodia</p>
</td>
<td style="width: 41.981%; height: 19px; border-style: hidden;"></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Goals:</strong> Boost economic growth and equitable economic development, advance economic cooperation and broaden and deepen integration in the region through the RCEP.</li>
<li>It aims to cover the trade in <strong>goods and services, investment, economic</strong> and <strong>technical cooperation, intellectual property</strong> and <strong>dispute resolution.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In 2017, the 16 prospective signatories (including India) accounted for a population of 3.4 billion people with a combined gross domestic product (GDP) of US$ 21.4 trillion, about half of the world population and 39 percent of the world's GDP.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>History</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Countries in<strong> East Asia region</strong> have thriving trade and economic relations with each other through free trade agreements.</li>
<li>The <a href="/important-institutions/drishti-specials-important-institutions-international-institution/asean" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)</strong></a> <strong>(ASEAN+1 FTAs)</strong> has free trade agreements with six partners namely,<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>The People's Republic of China (ACFTA)</strong></li>
<li><strong>Republic of Korea (AKFTA)</strong></li>
<li><strong>Japan (AJCEP)</strong></li>
<li><strong>India (AIFTA)</strong></li>
<li><strong>Australia and New Zealand (AANZFTA)</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>To broaden and deepen the engagement among parties and to enhance parties' participation in the economic development of the region, the leaders of the 16 participating countries established the RCEP.</li>
<li>The RCEP was built upon the existing <strong>ASEAN+1 FTAs</strong> with the spirit to <strong>strengthen economic linkages</strong> and <strong>to enhance trade and investment-related activities</strong> as well as to contribute to minimising development gap among the parties.</li>
<li>The RCEP negotiations were launched between the <strong>Ten ASEAN member states and six ASEAN FTA partners</strong> during the<strong> 21<sup>st</sup> ASEAN Summit</strong> and related summits in <strong>Phnom Penh, Cambodia in November 2012.</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>Objective</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>To achieve a <strong>modern, comprehensive, high-quality,</strong> and <strong>mutually beneficial economic partnership agreement</strong> among the ASEAN Member States and ASEAN's FTA partners.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Major FTAs India Signed</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>South Asia Free Trade Agreement (SAFTA)</li>
<li>India-ASEAN Comprehensive Economic Cooperation Agreement (CECA)</li>
<li>India-Korea Comprehensive Economic Partnership Agreement (CEPA)</li>
<li>India-Japan CEPA</li>
</ul>
<h3>India and RCEP</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India has dropped out of the RCEP in November 2019 in ASEAN+3 summit, because of the following reasons:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Widening Trade Deficit:</strong> India&rsquo;s trade deficit with the ASEAN, Korea and Japan has widened post-FTAs.</li>
<li><strong>Tariff elimination due to RCEP</strong> could worsen the trade deficit, at $105.2 billion in 2018-19.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The RCEP proposes that 92% of India's goods would be tariff-free over the next 15 years. India have to slash existing tariffs on up to 90% of all goods.</li>
<li>Since import duties are also a source of revenue for India, it could experience a disproportionate loss of customs revenue.</li>
<li>India's <strong>trade deficit with China is at $53 billion,</strong> further reduction or removal of customs tariffs will lead to an influx of cheaper products from China.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Sensitive List:</strong> Most of the RCEP countries have very high tariffs on certain products sensitive to them, such as rice, footwear, dairy products and honey, which they can continue to shield through the sensitive lists.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>The objections raised by India:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Base Year for Tariffs:</strong> The RCEP will result in reduction of tariffs in all member countries. Since negotiations began in 2013, the pact has proposed that the base year for reducing tariffs will be 2013. However, India wanted to change the base year applied to reduce tariffs to 2019. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>India has raised customs duties on many products since 2014.</li>
<li>India has increased tariffs on sectors such as textiles, auto components and electronic items on average from 13% to 17%.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Auto-Trigger Mechanism:</strong> The auto-trigger mechanism is used when there is a sudden surge in imports.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>It will allow to decide which products it does not want to offer the same concessions to.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Ratchet Obligations:</strong> India wants exemptions on ratchet obligations.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>A ratchet mechanism means that if a country signs a trade agreement with another country and removes or reduces tariffs and quotas. It cannot go back on them and bring in more restrictive measures.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Data Localisation:</strong> As part of the RCEP, India wants all countries to have the rights to protect data. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The countries may prevent the transfer of information across borders.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Services Sector:</strong> India has demanded that the ASEAN countries should open up their services sector so that Indian professionals and workers can have easier entry into their market.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>However, ASEAN countries are very sensitive about protecting this sector and have not offered much liberalisation even within the bloc to each-other.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Rules of Origin:</strong> India wants <strong>strict rules of origin</strong> to prevent Chinese goods from flooding the country through member countries that may have lower or no duty levels. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Chinese garments are making their way into India through the duty-free route under the <strong>South Asia Free Trade Pact</strong> and the <strong>Duty-Free Quota-Free</strong> window from Bangladesh.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The sectors that have shown resistance to the agreement are:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Dairy:</strong> Dairy is vital to India, given the place milk and other derivatives hold in Indian households. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>New Zealand is an exporter of dairy products and will be eyeing India primarily to sell milk powder and fat products. India, one of the largest consumers of milk and milk products, has so far been self-sustainable and has sometimes produced a surplus. The entry of New Zealand could change the scenario.</li>
<li>Nearly, 93.4% of New Zealand's milk powder, 94.5% of its butter, and 83.6% of its cheese production got exported in 2018. India's export of milk products does not match up.</li>
<li>It could lead to 50 million rural people losing their jobs, which will push up the need for importing.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Automobile:</strong> RCEP could allow a <strong>"back-door entry route"</strong> for automobile parts from China.</li>
<li><strong>Textile:</strong> The free import of polyester fabrics from China, Vietnam, Bangladesh and other countries, which could lead to cheaper textiles, affecting an already-hit sector. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>India's trade deficit with China in the textiles and clothing sector is likely to be widened that could be detrimental for its domestic textile manufacturers.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Steel:</strong> The steel industry also has concerns regarding China, that excessive imports could harm the domestic market.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>It will damage India's export competitiveness since the trade balance in the country is already skewed to a greater extent.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Agriculture:</strong> An apex body of <strong>planters of tea, coffee, rubber, cardamom and pepper</strong> said that RCEP would make things worse for the sector, which is already experiencing a downturn. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The products will be under intense competition and imports into the country will likely increase over time.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Way Forward</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Strengthen Existing Agreements:</strong> The trade and investment agreements with <strong>ASEAN, Japan and Korea,</strong> as well as its bilateral arrangements with <strong>Malaysia and Singapore</strong> must be strengthened.</li>
<li><strong>Marketing Products:</strong> The marketing of Indian products to existing favourable markets, as well as other countries where India has a low export presence. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Indian industry, which has a business in these markets, can benefit from targeted promotional strategies given that Indian products are competitive and favoured there.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Export Diversification:</strong> Increasing the exports in Africa, a rapidly growing continent which enjoys almost 9% of the export share, as well as Latin America, currently at a low 3%. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>West Asia has also been an expanding market where India enjoys synergies.</li>
<li>The export strategy for India requires a two-pronged approach, focussing on both <strong>enhancing domestic competitiveness</strong> and<strong> undertaking targeted promotional activities.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Deeper Economic Reforms:</strong> Must be initiated particularly in<strong> factor markets of land, labour and capital.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It will provide the much-needed impetus to overall manufacturing investments.</li>
<li>For domestic manufacturing, <strong>lowering costs of doing business, building the right infrastructure, ensuring faster</strong> and more <strong>efficient trade facilitation</strong> at the borders, etc.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Targeted Export Promotion:</strong> Provide information on markets to their manufacturers and exporters, especially small enterprises, and assisting them with marketing efforts. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Create dedicated agencies</strong> and <strong>establish offices overseas</strong> equipped with professional marketing expertise that will undertake <strong>export promotion</strong> and to link buyers with Indian exporters in major markets across the world.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>External Integration Strategy:</strong> The country needs to keep its interests on the table.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The road to further expansion of its exports to RCEP member nations is very much still open, given that India already has trade and investment agreements with 12 of them.</li>
<li>Utilising existing agreements better while proactively exploring new opportunities in other geographies will diversify both our markets as well as our export basket.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>',
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		'article_id' => (int) 3537,
		'category_id' => (int) 63,
		'title' => 'Council of Scientific and Industrial Research',
		'description' => '<p><strong>Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR)</strong> is the largest <strong>research and development (R&amp;D)</strong> organisation in India. <strong>CSIR has</strong> a pan-India presence and has a dynamic network of <strong>38 national laboratories, 39 outreach centres, 3 Innovation Complexes</strong> and <strong>5 units.</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Established:</strong> September 1942</li>
<li><strong>Located:</strong> New Delhi</li>
<li><strong>CSIR</strong> is funded by the<strong> Ministry of Science and Technology and it operates as an autonomous body</strong> through the <strong>Societies Registration Act, 1860.</strong></li>
<li>CSIR covers a wide spectrum of streams &ndash; from <strong>radio and space physics, oceanography, geophysics, chemicals, drugs, genomics, biotechnology and nanotechnology to mining, aeronautics, instrumentation, environmental engineering and information technology.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It provides significant <strong>technological intervention</strong> in many areas with regard to <strong>societal efforts</strong> which include the <strong>environment, health, drinking water, food, housing, energy, farm and non-farm sectors.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Organisation Structure</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>President:</strong> Prime Minister of India (Ex-officio)</li>
<li><strong>Vice President:</strong> Union Minister of Science and Technology (Ex-officio)</li>
<li><strong>Governing Body:</strong> The Director-General is the head of the governing body. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The other ex-officio member is the finance secretary (expenditures).</li>
<li>Other members' terms are of <strong>three years.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>CSIR Advisory Board:</strong> 15-member body composed of prominent members from respective fields of science and technology. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Its function is to provide science and technology inputs to the governing body.</li>
<li>Member <strong>terms are are of three years.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Objectives</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The objectives of the Council are <strong>scientific and industrial/applied research of national importance.</strong></li>
<li><strong>The activities include:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Promotion, guidance and coordination of scientific and industrial research</strong> in India including the institution and the financing of specific researchers.</li>
<li><strong>Establishment and assistance to special institutions or departments of existing institutions for the scientific study</strong> of problems affecting particular industries and trade.</li>
<li>Establishment and award of <strong>research studentships and fellowships.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Utilization of the results of the research conducted</strong> under the auspices of the Council towards the development of industries in the country.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Payment of a share of royalties arising out of the development of the results of research to those who are considered as having contributed towards the pursuit of such research.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Establishment, maintenance and management of laboratories, workshops, institutes and organisations</strong> to further scientific and industrial research.</li>
<li><strong>Collection and dissemination of information</strong> in regard not only to research but to industrial matters generally.</li>
<li><strong>Publication of scientific papers and a journal</strong> of industrial research and development.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Vision &amp; Strategy 2022</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Vision:</strong> Pursue science which strives for global impact, the technology that enables innovation-driven industry and nurtures trans-disciplinary leadership thereby <strong>catalyzing inclusive economic development</strong> for the people of India.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Awards</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar (SSB) Prize for Science and Technology</strong> is named after the founder Director of the <strong>CSIR,</strong> the late Dr Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar.</li>
<li>It was instituted in 1957 as the most coveted and revered prize in the field of science and technology in the country.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Dr Shanti Swarup Bhatnagar</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>He was the Founder Director (and later first Director-General) of <strong>CSIR</strong> who is credited with establishing twelve national laboratories.</li>
<li>He played a significant role in the building of post-independent <strong>Science and Technology</strong> infrastructure and in the formulation of India&rsquo;s S &amp; T policies. He concurrently held a number of important positions in the Government. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He was the first <strong>Chairman</strong> of the <strong>University Grants Commission (UGC).</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>He was conferred with <strong>Order of British Empire (OBE).</strong> He was <strong>Knighted in 1941&nbsp;</strong>and elected <strong>Fellow of the Royal Society, London in 1943.</strong></li>
<li>He was awarded the <strong>Padma Vibhushan in 1954</strong> by the President of India.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Global Recognition</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Scimago Institutions Rankings:</strong> CSIR is recognized to be among the International leader in knowledge creation.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>CSIR has been ranked <strong>17<sup>th</sup> in the world amongst the government institutions</strong> in the world according to the prestigious <strong>Scimago Institutions Rankings 2019 Report.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Intellectual Property:</strong> Amongst its peers in publicly funded research organizations in the world, CSIR is a leader in terms of filing and securing patents worldwide.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>CSIR is granted 90% of the US patents granted to any publicly funded Indian R&amp;D organization.</li>
<li>On an average CSIR files about 200 Indian patents and 250 foreign patents per year. About 13.86% of CSIR patents are licensed - a number which is above the global average.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>CSIR Key Achievements</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Strategic Sector:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Drishti transmissometer:</strong> It is an Indigenous - Innovative &ndash;Cost-effective visibility measuring system that provides information to pilots on visibility for safe landing &amp; take-off operations and is suitable for all airport categories.</li>
<li><strong>Head-Up-Display (HUD): CSIR-National Aerospace Laboratories (NAL)</strong> made a significant contribution by developing indigenous Head-Up- display(HUD) for Indian <strong>Light Combat Aircraft, Tejas.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>HUD aids the pilot in flying the aircraft and in critical flight manoeuvres including weapon aiming.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Indigenous Gyrotron:</strong> Design and development of indigenous gyrotron for nuclear fusion reactor have been accomplished.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>A gyrotron is a <strong>vacuum electronic device (VED)</strong> capable to generate high-power, high-frequency THz radiation.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Energy &amp; Environment:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Solar Tree:</strong> It designed by <strong>CSIR- The Central Mechanical Engineering Research Institute (CMERI)</strong> lab in Durgapur. It occupies minimum space to produce clean power.</li>
<li><strong>Lithium-Ion Battery:</strong> The <strong>Central Electrochemical Research Institute (CECRI), Karaikudi in Tamil Nadu,</strong> has set up the first indigenous Li-ion fabrication facility that has applications in defence, solar-powered devices, railways and other high-end usages.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Agriculture:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Medicinal and Aromatic Plants:</strong> Enhanced cultivation of medicinal and aromatic plants in the country brought through the development of new varieties and agro-technologies.</li>
<li><strong>Samba Mahsuri Rice Variety:</strong> CSIR in collaboration with ICAR developed an improved <strong>bacterial blight resistant</strong> Samba Mahsuri variety.</li>
<li><strong>Rice Cultivar (Muktashree) for Arsenic Contaminated Areas:</strong> A rice variety has been developed which restricts assimilation of Arsenic within the permissible limit.</li>
<li><strong>White-fly resistant Cotton variety:</strong> Developed a <strong>transgenic cotton line</strong> which is resistant to whiteflies.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Healthcare:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>JD Vaccine for Farm Animals:</strong> Vaccine developed and commercialized for Johne&rsquo;s disease (JD) affecting Sheep, Goat, Cow and Buffalo so as to immunize them and increase milk &amp; meat production.</li>
<li><strong>Plasma Gelsolin Diagnostic Kit for Premature Births, and Sepsis-related Deaths:</strong> It is developed to diagnose premature birth and sepsis.</li>
<li><strong>GOMED:</strong> A programme called <strong>GOMED (Genomics and other omics technologies for Enabling Medical Decision)</strong> has been developed by the CSIR which provides a platform of disease genomics to solve clinical problems.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Food &amp; Nutrition:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Ksheer-scanner:</strong> It is a new technological invention by <strong>CSIR-Central Electronics Engineering Research Institute (CEERI)</strong> to detect the level of milk adulteration and adulterants in 45 seconds at the cost of 10 paise, thereby putting adulterators in the milk trade in notice.</li>
<li><strong>Double-Fortified Salt:</strong> Salt fortified with iodine and iron having improved properties developed and tested for addressing anaemia in people.</li>
<li><strong>Anti-obesity DAG Oil:</strong> Oil enriched with <strong>Diacylglycerol (DAG)</strong> instead of conventional triacylglycerol (TAG) developed.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Water:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Aquifer Mapping of Water Scarce Areas: Heliborne transient electromagnetic and surface magnetic technique</strong> based aquifer mapping carried out in six different geological locations in Rajasthan (2), Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.</li>
<li><strong>Understanding the Special Properties of the Ganga Water:</strong> An assessment of water quality &amp; sediment analysis of Ganga from different parts being done.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Waste to Wealth:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Non-toxic Radiation Shielding Material for X-ray Protection:</strong> Non-toxic radiation shielding materials utilizing industrial waste like red mud (from aluminium industries) and fly ash (Thermal Power Plants) developed which has been accredited by <strong>Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB)</strong> for application in diagnostic X-Ray rooms.</li>
<li><strong>Waste Plastic to Fuel:</strong> Process for conversion of waste plastics to gasoline/diesel or aromatics developed.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>The Indelible Mark:</strong> The Indelible ink used to mark the fingernail of a voter during elections is a time-tested gift of CSIR to the spirit of democracy. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Developed in 1952, it was first produced in-campus. Subsequently, the industry has been manufacturing the Ink. It is also exported to Sri Lanka, Indonesia, Turkey and other democracies.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Skill development:</strong> CSIR is building a structured large scale Skill development Initiative using the state of the art infrastructure and human resources of CSIR. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>About 30 High Tech Skill/Training programmes are being launched for imparting skills to over 5000 candidates annually.</li>
<li><strong>The skill development programmes cover the following areas:</strong> Leather process Technology; Leather Footwear &amp; Garments; Paints &amp; coatings for corrosion protection; Electroplating &amp; Metal Finishing; Lead Acid Battery maintenance; Glass Beaded Jewellery / Blue Pottery; Industrial Maintenance Engineering; Internet of Things (IoT); and Regulatory &ndash; Preclinical Toxicology.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Aviation:</strong> The CSIR-National Aerospace Laboratories has designed a plane 'SARAS'. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In 2011, successfully tested India's 1st indigenous civilian aircraft, NAL NM5 made in association with National Aerospace Laboratories and Mahindra Aerospace.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Traditional Knowledge Digital Library:</strong> CSIR has established the first-ever 'Traditional Knowledge Digital Library'<strong> in the world.</strong> It is accessible in five international languages( English, German, French, Japanese and Spanish).<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>CSIR successfully challenged the grant of patent in the USA for use of Haldi (turmeric) for wound healing and neem as an insecticide on the basis of traditional knowledge.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Genome sequencing:</strong> CSIR has completed the sequencing of the Human Genome in 2009.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Some Important CSIR Labs</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>CSIR-Advanced Materials and Processes Research Institute, <strong>Bhopal</strong></li>
<li>CSIR-Central Glass Ceramic Research Institute, <strong>Kolkata</strong></li>
<li>CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, <strong>Lucknow</strong></li>
<li>CSIR-Centre for Cellular Molecular Biology, <strong>Hyderabad</strong></li>
<li>CSIR-Central Institute of Mining and Fuel Research, <strong>Dhanbad</strong></li>
<li>CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal Aromatic Plants, <strong>Lucknow</strong></li>
<li>CSIR-Central Leather Research Institute,<strong> Chennai</strong></li>
<li>CSIR-Institute of Genomics and Integrative Biology, <strong>Delhi</strong></li>
<li>CSIR-Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine, <strong>Jammu</strong></li>
<li>CSIR-Indian Institute of Petroleum, <strong>Dehradun</strong></li>
<li>CSIR-National Aerospace Laboratories, <strong>Bengaluru</strong></li>
<li>CSIR-National Botanical Research Institute, <strong>Lucknow</strong></li>
<li>CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology, <strong>Chandigarh</strong></li>
<li>CSIR-National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, <strong>Nagpur</strong></li>
<li>CSIR-National Institute of Oceanography, <strong>Goa</strong></li>
<li>CSIR-National Metallurgical Laboratory, <strong>Jamshedpur</strong></li>
<li>CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, <strong>New Delhi</strong></li>
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	(int) 4 => object(Cake\ORM\Entity) {

		'article_id' => (int) 3474,
		'category_id' => (int) 60,
		'title' => 'UNICEF',
		'description' => '<p><strong>United Nations Children&rsquo;s Fund (UNICEF)</strong> is a special program of the <strong>United Nations (UN)</strong> devoted to aiding national efforts to improve the health, nutrition, education, and general welfare of children.</p>
<h3>History</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>UNICEF</strong> was created in <strong>1946</strong> as International Children&rsquo;s Emergency Fund (ICEF) by UN relief Rehabilitation Administration to help children affected by World War II.</li>
<li>UNICEF became a <strong>permanent part</strong> of the <strong><a href="/important-institutions/drishti-specials-important-institutions-international-institution/united-nations-1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">United Nations</a> in 1953</strong>.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The name was shortened to <strong>United Nations Children Fund</strong> but it is still referred to as UNICEF.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>It is <strong>mandated by the United Nations General Assembly</strong> to advocate for the protection of children's rights, to help meet their basic needs and to expand their opportunities to reach their full potential.</li>
<li>UNICEF is guided by the <strong>Convention on the Rights of the Child, 1989</strong>.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It strives to establish <strong>children's rights</strong> as enduring <strong>ethical principles</strong> and <strong>international standards</strong> of behaviour towards children.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Awarded the <strong>Nobel Prize for Peace</strong> in 1965 for <strong>&ldquo;promotion of brotherhood among the nations&rdquo;</strong>.</li>
<li><strong>Headquarters:</strong> New York City.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It works in over 190 countries and territories with <strong>7 regional offices</strong>.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Scope of Work</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>After 1950, the UNICEF directed its efforts toward general programs for the improvement of children&rsquo;s welfare, particularly in <strong>less-developed countries</strong> and in various emergency situations.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It eventually expanded its scope to the struggle of women, especially mothers, in the developing world. For example, it launched its <strong>'Women in Development Programme'</strong> in 1980.</li>
<li>In 1982, UNICEF commenced a new <strong>children's health program</strong> that focused on <strong>monitoring growth, oral rehydration therapy, advocating breastfeeding and immunization</strong>.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The work of the UNICEF includes:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Child Development and Nutrition;</li>
<li>Child Protection;</li>
<li>Education;</li>
<li>Child Environment;</li>
<li>Polio Eradication;</li>
<li>Reproductive and Child Health;</li>
<li>Children and AIDS;</li>
<li>Social Policy, Planning, Monitoring and Evaluation;</li>
<li>Advocacy and Partnership;</li>
<li>Behaviour Change Communication;</li>
<li>Emergency Preparedness and Response.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>UNICEF <strong>mobilizes political</strong> will and material resources to help countries, particularly developing countries.</li>
<li>UNICEF is committed to ensuring special protection for the most disadvantaged children &mdash; victims of war, disasters, extreme poverty, all forms of violence and exploitation, especially those with disabilities.</li>
<li>UNICEF works with all its partners towards the attainment of the <strong>sustainable human development goals</strong> adopted by the world community.</li>
<li>The realization of the vision of peace and social progress enshrined in the Charter of the United Nations.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Structure</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>UNICEF is governed by an <strong>Executive Board</strong> consisting of 36 members that are elected to terms of three years by the <strong>United Nations' Economic and Social Council</strong>.</li>
<li>The following countries are home to UNICEF Regional Offices. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Americas and Caribbean Regional Office, <strong>Panama City, Panama</strong></li>
<li>Europe and Central Asia Regional Office, <strong>Geneva, Switzerland</strong></li>
<li>East Asia and the Pacific Regional Office, <strong>Bangkok, Thailand</strong></li>
<li>Eastern and Southern Africa Regional Office, <strong>Nairobi, Kenya</strong></li>
<li>The Middle East and North Africa Regional Office, <strong>Amman, Jordan</strong></li>
<li>South Asia Regional Office, <strong>Kathmandu, Nepal</strong></li>
<li>West and Central Africa Regional Office, <strong>Dakar, Senegal</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Each region that UNICEF serves is allocated a number of seats on the Executive Board, so all regions are represented.</li>
<li>There are also <strong>36 national committees</strong> across the globe, which are non-governmental organizations that help promote the rights of children and fundraise.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Funding</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The national committees are an integral part of UNICEF&rsquo;s global organization and a unique feature of UNICEF.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Serving as the public face and dedicated voice of UNICEF, the National Committees work tirelessly to raise funds from the private sector, promote children&rsquo;s rights and secure worldwide visibility for children threatened by poverty, disasters, armed conflict, abuse and exploitation.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>UNICEF is funded exclusively by <strong>voluntary contributions</strong>, and the <strong>National Committees</strong> collectively raise around one-third of UNICEF's annual income. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>This comes through contributions from corporations, civil society organizations and more than 6 million individual donors worldwide.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>It also rallies many different partners &ndash; including the media, national and local government officials, NGOs, specialists such as doctors and lawyers, corporations, schools, young people and the general public &ndash; on issues related to children&rsquo;s rights.</li>
</ul>
<h3>UNICEF and India</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>UNICEF <strong>began its work in India in 1949</strong> with three staff members and established an office in Delhi three years later. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Currently, it advocates for the rights of India&rsquo;s children in 16 states.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Nodal Ministries:</strong> Ministry of Women and Child Development.</li>
<li>Work done by UNICEF in India includes:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Census support, 2011:</strong> Gender issues were mainstreamed into the training and communication strategy for the 2011 Census. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>This helped 2.7 million enumerators and supervisors collect quality disaggregated data as part of the UNICEF contribution to the joint United Nations support to the Census.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Polio Campaign, 2012:</strong> Polio cases in India fell from 559 in 2008 to zero cases in 2012. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The Government, in partnership with <strong>UNICEF, the World Health Organization (WHO), the Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation, Rotary International</strong> and the <strong>Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</strong> contributed to almost universal awareness of the need to vaccinate all children under five against polio.</li>
<li>As a result of these efforts, India was removed from the list of endemic countries in 2014.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Reduction in MMR, 2013:</strong> UNICEF&rsquo;s support to the <strong>National Health Mission (NHM)</strong> and the second phase of the <strong>Reproductive and Child Health programme</strong> resulted in increased access to institutional and community-based maternal, neonatal and child health services. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>This contributed to a reduction in the <strong>Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR)</strong> to <strong>130</strong> (2014-16), and the <strong>Infant Mortality Rate (IMR)</strong> to <strong>34</strong> (2016). (Data Source: NITI Aayog)<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li><strong>MMR</strong> is defined as the proportion of maternal deaths per 1,00,000 live births.</li>
<li><strong>IMR</strong> is the number of deaths per 1,000 live births of children under one year of age.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Call to Action, 2013:</strong> This initiative was launched to reduce under-five mortality. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>It has brought together state governments, development partners, such as UNICEF, NGOs, the corporate sector and other key stakeholders under the umbrella to ensure harmony in efforts to accelerate inroads in child survival.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Maternal and Child Nutrition, 2013:</strong> The <strong>Ministry of Women and Child Development (MWCD)</strong> successfully launched a nationwide communication campaign on <strong>Maternal and Child Nutrition</strong> with UNICEF Ambassador promoting nutrition for children.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>This was one of the largest public service campaigns in the country, reaching people across India, through diverse means of communication in 18 languages.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>India Newborn Action Plan, 2014:</strong> This is first of this kind in the region, builds upon the existing commitments for newborn under <strong>Call to Action, the RMNCH+A (Reproductive, Maternal, Newborn, Child Health + Adolescent)</strong>.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Strategic Plan (2018&ndash;2021)</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The plan will help realize and protect the rights of all children through five goal areas, which are linked to both the <strong>Sustainable Development Goals</strong> and <strong>the Convention on the Rights of the Child</strong>:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>every child survives and thrives;</li>
<li>every child learns;</li>
<li>every child is protected from violence and exploitation;</li>
<li>every child lives in a safe and clean environment; and</li>
<li>every child has an equitable chance in life.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The plan also includes two additional areas that cut across all of the other goals: <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>gender equality</li>
<li>humanitarian action</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>It promotes synergies across goal areas to address early childhood development and adolescent development, and to support children with disabilities.</li>
</ul>
<h3>The Future of the Child (The Child in 2030)</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Foresight for action:</strong> It is the methodologies, practices and processes that help UNICEF to navigate uncertainty and better prepare for the future.</li>
<li>Foresight identifies emerging trends and the changing circumstances that could impact the future of the child.</li>
<li>It allows UNICEF to look beyond what is probable and prepare for what is possible.</li>
<li>To demonstrate the utility of foresight, UNICEF analyses five megatrends that are of growing importance for children:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>global health crises</li>
<li>inequality and the middle-income trap</li>
<li>the changing nature and scale of the conflict</li>
<li>global migration</li>
<li>the effects of technology on work and education</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>',
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	(int) 5 => object(Cake\ORM\Entity) {

		'article_id' => (int) 3428,
		'category_id' => (int) 63,
		'title' => 'National Investigation Agency',
		'description' => '<p>The National Investigation Agency (NIA) was constituted under the<strong> National Investigation Agency (NIA) Act, 2008.</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It is a <strong>central agency to investigate and prosecute offences:</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>affecting the sovereignty, security and integrity of India, security of State, friendly relations with foreign States.</li>
<li>against atomic and nuclear facilities.</li>
<li>smuggling in High-Quality Counterfeit Indian Currency.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>It implements international treaties, agreements, conventions and resolutions of the United Nations, its agencies and other international organisations.</li>
<li>It&rsquo;s objective is also to combat terror in India.</li>
<li>It acts as the Central Counter-Terrorism Law Enforcement Agency.</li>
<li><strong>Headquarters:</strong> New Delhi
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Branches: Hyderabad, Guwahati, Kochi, Lucknow, Mumbai, Kolkata, Raipur and Jammu.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Goals of NIA</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>To execute in-depth professional investigation of scheduled offences using the latest scientific methods of investigation.</li>
<li>Upholding the constitution of India and laws of the land.</li>
<li>Prime importance to the protection of Human Rights and dignity of the individual.</li>
<li>Developing a professional workforce through regular training and exposure to the best practices and procedures.</li>
<li>Ensuring effective and speedy trial.</li>
<li>Maintaining professional and cordial relations with the governments of States and Union Territories and other law enforcement agencies in compliance with the legal provisions of the NIA Act.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Assist all States and other investigating agencies in the investigation of terrorist cases.</li>
<li>Build a database of all terrorist-related information and share the database available with the States and other agencies.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Study and analyse laws relating to terrorism in other countries and regularly evaluate the adequacy of existing laws in India and propose changes as and when necessary.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Scheduled Offences</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The schedule to the Act specifies a list of offences which are to be investigated and prosecuted by the NIA.</li>
<li>These include offences under Acts such as the Atomic Energy Act, 1962, and the Unlawful Activities Prevention Act, 1967.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Need of NIA</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The terrorist incidents are found to have complex inter-State and international linkages, and possible connection with organised crime, for example, the smuggling of arms and drugs, circulation of fake Indian currency etc.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The agency at the Central level was created for investigation of offences related to terrorism and certain other <strong>Act post-2008 Mumbai terror attacks.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Mandate of NIA</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The cases are assigned to the NIA by the Central Government in accordance with section VI of the NIA Act, 2008.
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The investigation of the cases is done by the Agency independently.</li>
<li>After investigation, the cases are placed before the NIA Special Court.</li>
<li>For prosecuting the accused under the<a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/unlawful-activities-prevention-amendment-bill-2019" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong> Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, 1967 (UAPA)</strong></a> and certain other scheduled offences, the Agency seeks the sanction of the Central Government.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The sanction is granted under the UAPA based on the report of the &lsquo;Authority&rsquo; constituted under section 45 (2) of the UAPA.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>It is empowered to deal with terror-related crimes across states without special permission from the states.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Smuggling and Terror Funding</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The amendments to the NIA Act has brought the offences related to the smuggling in High-Quality Counterfeit Indian Currency under the definition of a terrorist Act.</li>
<li>To curb various aspects of terrorist financing, a Terror Funding and Fake Currency Cell (TFFC) has been created in the NIA.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Cell maintains a database of terror financing and cases of Fake Indian Currency Notes (FICN).</li>
<li>TFFC also conducts a part investigation into terror financing aspects of regular cases investigated by the NIA.</li>
<li>TFFC Cell conducts verifications of bank accounts of the suspects that are linked with Naxalite groups.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>There is an <strong>exclusive Left Wing Extremism (LWE)</strong> cell to effectively deal with cases related to terror financing aspects of Naxalite groups.</li>
<li>The <strong>Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA)</strong> reviews the manpower, financial and infrastructure requirements of NIA from time to time.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Recent Amendment&nbsp;</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The<a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-editorials/nia-amendment-bill-2019" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong> NIA (Amendment) Bill, 2019</strong></a> was passed by Parliament amending the original Act of 2008.</li>
<li>The Bill seeks to allow the NIA to investigate the following additional offences:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Human trafficking</li>
<li>Offences related to counterfeit currency or banknotes</li>
<li>Manufacture or sale of prohibited arms</li>
<li>Cyber-terrorism, and</li>
<li>Offences under the Explosive Substances Act, 1908</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Jurisdiction of the NIA</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The officers of the NIA have the same powers as other police officers in relation to the investigation of such offences, across India.</li>
<li>The officers of the NIA will have the power to investigate scheduled offences committed outside India, subject to international treaties and domestic laws of other countries.</li>
<li>The central government may direct the NIA to investigate such cases as if the offence has been committed in India.</li>
<li>The Special Court in New Delhi will have jurisdiction over these cases.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Special Courts</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Central Government for the trial of Scheduled Offences, constitute one or more Special Courts under <strong>Section 11 and 22 of the NIA Act 2008.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Composition:</strong> Special Court shall be presided over by a judge to be appointed by the Central Government on the recommendation of the Chief Justice of the High Court.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Central Government may, if required, appoint an additional judge or additional judges to the Special Court, on the recommendation of the Chief Justice of the High Court.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Jurisdiction of Special Courts:</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Special Courts have all powers of the court of sessions under the<strong> Code of Criminal Procedure, 1973. </strong></li>
<li>Where any question arises as to the jurisdiction of any Special Court, it shall be referred to the<strong> Central Government whose decision in the matter shall be final.</strong></li>
<li>The Supreme Court can transfer a case pending before a Special Court to any other Special Court within that State or any other State in some exceptional cases where it is not feasible to conduct a peaceful, fair, impartial and speedy trial.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Similarly,<strong> the High Court</strong> has the power to transfer a case pending before a Special Court in a State to any other Special Court <strong>within that State.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Issues in the Recent Amendments</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Under schedule VII of the Constitution, the maintenance of public order and police forces are <strong>matters of state list.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>However, <strong>Criminal law forms part of the concurrent list</strong> and<strong> national security comes under the domains of union list.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The Central government gets the authority to have the NIA take over the investigation of crimes, which involve allegations of human trafficking, offences under the Explosives Act, and certain offences under the Arms Act.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>However, <strong>not every criminal offence in the above act is a threat to national security</strong> and sovereignty and consequently, states have the competence to deal with the same.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The Amendment Bill puts <strong>Section 66F of the Information Technology Act</strong> into the Schedule listing offences.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Section 66F deals with<strong> cyber terrorism.</strong></li>
<li>But India <strong>does not have a data protection act</strong> and there is<strong> no definition of cyber terrorism.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The amendment to the NIA Act also gives the agency authority to investigate crimes committed by persons which are against Indian citizens or <strong>&ldquo;affecting the interest of India&rdquo;.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>However, the <strong>term &ldquo;affecting the interest of India&rdquo;</strong> is undefined and can be misused by governments to curb freedom of speech and expression.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Further, the laws, under which the NIA has the authority to investigate, themselves do not mention &ldquo;affecting the interest of India&rdquo; as an offence.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>',
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	(int) 6 => object(Cake\ORM\Entity) {

		'article_id' => (int) 3373,
		'category_id' => (int) 60,
		'title' => 'International Labour Organization',
		'description' => '<p>The <strong>International Labour Organization (ILO)</strong> celebrated its 100<sup>th</sup> anniversary in 2019.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It is the only <strong>tripartite U.N. agency.</strong> It brings together <strong>governments, employers and workers</strong> of <strong>187 member States,</strong> to set labour standards, develop policies and devise programmes promoting decent work for all women and men.</li>
</ul>
<h3>History of the ILO</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Established in 1919 by the <strong>Treaty of Versailles</strong> as an affiliated agency of the<strong> League of Nations.</strong></li>
<li>Became the first affiliated <strong>specialized agency</strong> of the <strong>United Nations in 1946.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Headquarters:</strong> Geneva, Switzerland</li>
<li><strong>Founding Mission:</strong> social justice is essential to universal and lasting peace.</li>
<li>Promotes internationally recognized human and labour rights.</li>
<li>Received the<strong> Nobel Peace Prize</strong> in 1969.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>For improving peace among classes</li>
<li>Pursuing decent work and justice for workers</li>
<li>Providing technical assistance to other developing nations</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The organization has played a key role in <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Ensuring labour rights during the Great Depression</li>
<li>Decolonization process</li>
<li>The creation of Solidarność ( trade union) in Poland</li>
<li>The victory over apartheid in South Africa</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Today it is providing substantial support in the building of an ethical and productive framework for fair globalization.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Note:</strong> The basis of the ILO is the <strong>tripartite principle,</strong> i.e. the negotiations within the organization are held between the representatives of governments, trade unions, and member-states&rsquo; employers.</p>
</div>
<h3>Structure of ILO</h3>
<p>The ILO accomplishes its work through three main bodies which comprise governments', employers' and workers' representatives:</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>International Labour Conference:</strong> it sets the International labour standards and the broad policies of the ILO. It meets annually in Geneva. It is often referred to as an <strong>International Parliament of Labour.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It is also a forum for discussion of key social and labour questions.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Governing Body:</strong> it is the <strong>executive council</strong> of the ILO. It meets three times a year in Geneva. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It takes policy decisions of ILO and establishes the programme and the budget, which it then submits to the Conference for adoption.</li>
<li>The work of the Governing Body and the Office is aided by <strong>tripartite committees</strong> covering major industries.</li>
<li>It is also supported by committees of experts on such matters as vocational training, management development, occupational safety and health, industrial relations, workers&rsquo; education, and special problems of women and young workers.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>International Labour Office:</strong> it is the permanent secretariat of the International Labour Organization. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It is the focal point for ILO&rsquo;s overall activities, which it prepares under the scrutiny of the Governing Body and under the leadership of the Director-General.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Regional meetings</strong> of the ILO member States are held periodically to examine matters of special interest to the regions concerned.</li>
</ul>
<h3>The Functions of the ILO</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Creation of <strong>coordinated policies and programs,</strong> directed at solving social and labour issues.</li>
<li><strong>Adoption of international labour standards</strong> in the form of conventions and recommendations and control over their implementation.</li>
<li><strong>Assistance to member-states</strong> in solving social and labour problems.</li>
<li><strong>Human rights protection</strong> (the right to work, freedom of association, collective negotiations, protection against forced labour, protection against discrimination, etc.).</li>
<li><strong>Research and publication</strong> of works on social and labour issues.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Objectives of the ILO</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>To promote and realize standards and fundamental principles and rights at work.</li>
<li>To create greater opportunities for women and men to secure decent employment.</li>
<li>To enhance the coverage and effectiveness of social protection for all.</li>
<li>To strengthen tripartism and social dialogue.</li>
</ul>
<h3>International Labour Standards</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The ILO sets international labour standards with conventions, which are ratified by member states. These are <strong>non-binding.</strong></li>
<li>Conventions are drawn up with input from governments, workers&rsquo; and employers&rsquo; groups at the ILO and are adopted by the <strong>International Labour Conference.</strong></li>
<li>In ratifying an ILO convention, a member state <strong>accepts it as a legally binding instrument.</strong> Many countries use conventions as a tool to bring national laws in line with international standards.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Decent Work Agenda</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>As part of its mission, the ILO aims to achieve decent work for all by promoting social dialogue, social protection and employment creation, as well as respect for international labour standards.</li>
<li>The ILO provides technical support to more than 100 countries to help achieve these aims, with the support of development partners.</li>
</ul>
<h3>ILO Declaration on Fundamental Principles and Rights at Work</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It was adopted in 1998, the Declaration commits member states to respect and promote <strong>eight fundamental principles and rights</strong> in four categories, whether or not they have ratified the relevant conventions. They are:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Freedom of Association and The Right to collective bargaining (Conventions 87 and 98)</li>
<li>Elimination of forced or compulsory labour (Conventions No. 29 and No. 105)</li>
<li>Abolition of child labour (Conventions No. 138 and No. 182)</li>
<li>Elimination of discrimination in respect of employment and occupation (Conventions No. 100 and No. 111)</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Core Conventions of the ILO</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The eight fundamental conventions form an integral part of the <strong>United Nations Human Rights Framework,</strong> and their ratification is an important sign of member States&rsquo; commitment to human rights.</li>
<li>Overall, 135 member States have ratified all eight fundamental conventions. Unfortunately, 48 member states (out of 183 member States), including member states with the highest populations, have yet to complete ratification of all eight conventions.</li>
<li>The <strong>eight-core conventions of the ILO</strong> are:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Forced Labour Convention (No. 29)</li>
<li>Abolition of Forced Labour Convention (No.105)</li>
<li>Equal Remuneration Convention (No.100)</li>
<li>Discrimination (Employment Occupation) Convention (No.111)</li>
<li>Minimum Age Convention (No.138)</li>
<li>Worst forms of Child Labour Convention (No.182)</li>
<li>Freedom of Association and Protection of Right to Organised Convention (No.87)</li>
<li>Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention (No.98)</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The eight conventions, taken together, are more relevant today in the face of <strong>global economic</strong> and other challenges impinging on the welfare and livelihood of workers in all regions. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Indeed, they are part and parcel of the overarching architecture for the universality of human rights, offering protection to all, and responding closely to the quest for social justice in a globalized setting.</li>
<li>They are catalytic to the UN system, the international community and local communities as a whole.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>India and ILO</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India is a founding member of the ILO and it has been a permanent member of the ILO Governing Body since 1922.</li>
<li>In India, the first ILO Office was started in 1928. The decades of productive partnership between the ILO and its constituents has mutual trust and respect as underlying principles and is grounded in building sustained institutional capacities and strengthening capacities of partners.</li>
<li>India has ratified six out of the <strong>eight-core/fundamental ILO conventions.</strong> These conventions are:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Forced Labour Convention (No. 29)</li>
<li>Abolition of Forced Labour Convention (No.105)</li>
<li>Equal Remuneration Convention (No.100)</li>
<li>Discrimination (Employment Occupation) Convention (No.111)</li>
<li>Minimum Age Convention (No.138)</li>
<li>Worst forms of Child Labour Convention (No.182)</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>India has <strong>not ratified</strong> the two core/fundamental conventions, namely <strong>Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise Convention, 1948 (No. 87)</strong> and <strong>Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining Convention, 1949 (No. 98).</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The main reason for non-ratification of ILO conventions No.87 &amp; 98 is due to certain restrictions imposed on the government servants.</li>
<li>The ratification of these conventions would involve granting of certain rights that are prohibited under the statutory rules, for the government employees, namely, the right to strike, to openly criticize government policies, to freely accept a financial contribution, to freely join foreign organizations etc.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Trade Unions at the ILO</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Trade unions play a crucial role in developing policy at the ILO, Worker group representation is drawn from national trade union confederations.</li>
<li>The <strong>Bureau for Workers' Activities</strong> at the secretariat is dedicated to strengthening independent and democratic trade unions so they can better defend workers&rsquo; rights and interests.</li>
</ul>
<h3>The ILO&rsquo;s supervisory role</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The ILO monitors the implementation of ILO conventions ratified by member states. This is done through:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong>Committee of Experts</strong> on the Application of conventions and Recommendations.</li>
<li>The International Labour Conference&rsquo;s <strong>Tripartite Committee</strong> on the Application of conventions and Recommendations.</li>
<li>Member states are also required to send reports on the progress of the implementation of the conventions they have ratified.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Complaints</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The ILO registers complaints against entities that are violating international rules; however, <strong>it does not impose sanctions on governments.</strong></li>
<li>Complaints can be filed against member states for not complying with ILO conventions they have ratified.</li>
<li>Complaints can be from another member state which has signed the same convention, a delegate to the International Labour Conference or the ILO's Governing Body.</li>
</ul>
<h3>ILO&rsquo;s Global Commission on the Future of Work</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The formation of an ILO <strong>Global Commission on the Future of Work</strong> marks the second stage in the ILO Future of Work Initiative.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It was co-chaired by <strong>South African President Cyril Ramaphosa</strong> and<strong> Swedish Prime Minister, Stefan L&ouml;fven.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The commission outlines a vision for a human-centred agenda that is based on investing in people&rsquo;s capabilities, institutions of work and decent and sustainable work.</li>
<li>Its has undertaken an in-depth examination of the future of work that can provide the analytical basis for the delivery of social justice in the 21<sup>st</sup> century.</li>
<li>It outlines the<strong> challenges caused by new technology, climate change and demography</strong> and calls for a collective global response to the disruptions they are causing in the world of work.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Artificial intelligence, automation and robotics will lead to job losses, as skills become obsolete.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>The key recommendations are:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>A universal labour guarantee</strong> that protects the fundamental rights of workers&rsquo;, an adequate living wage, limits on hours of work and safe and healthy workplaces.</li>
<li><strong>Guaranteed social protection</strong> from birth to old age that supports people&rsquo;s needs over the life cycle.</li>
<li>A universal entitlement to lifelong learning that enables people to skill, reskill and upskill.</li>
<li><strong>Managing technological change</strong> to boost decent work, including an international governance system for digital labour platforms.</li>
<li><strong>Greater investments</strong> in the care, green and rural economies.</li>
<li>A transformative and measurable agenda for <strong>gender equality.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Reshaping business incentives</strong> to encourage long-term investments.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>',
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	(int) 7 => object(Cake\ORM\Entity) {

		'article_id' => (int) 3270,
		'category_id' => (int) 60,
		'title' => 'G-7',
		'description' => '<p>The Group of Seven (G-7) is an <strong>informal bloc of industrialized democracies&mdash;France, Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom, Japan, the United States, and Canada&mdash;</strong>that meets annually to discuss issues of common interest like global economic governance, international security and energy policy.</p>
<h3>History</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The G-7 has its roots in an informal meeting of the finance ministers of France, West Germany, the U.S, Great Britain, and Japan (the Group of Five) in the wake of the <strong>1973 oil crisis.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The French President invited the leaders of West Germany, U.S, Great Britain, Japan and Italy, to <strong>Rambouillet (France) in 1975</strong> for further discussions on global oil crisis.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Membership</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>France, West Germany, Italy, Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States formed the <strong>Group of Six in 1975</strong> to provide a venue for the <strong>industrialized democracies</strong> to address pressing economic concerns.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In 1976, Canada was also invited to join the group and the first meeting with all G-7 nations was hosted by the United States which was held in <strong>Puerto Rico</strong> in 1976.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The European Union has participated fully in the G-7 since 1981 as a <strong>"non enumerated"</strong> member. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It is represented by the presidents of the <strong>European Council,</strong> which represents the EU member states' leaders, and the<strong> European Commission</strong> (the E.U.&rsquo;s executive branch)</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The G-7 was known as the G-8 for several years after the original seven were joined by Russia in 1997. The inclusion of USSR in G-7 was meant as a signal of cooperation between East and West after the <strong>Soviet Union&rsquo;s collapse in 1991.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The group returned to being called G-7 after Russia was expelled as a member in 2014 following the annexation of the Crimea region of Ukraine.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>There are <strong>no formal criteria for membership,</strong> but participants are all highly developed democracies. The aggregate GDP of G-7 member states <strong>makes up nearly 50% of the global economy </strong>and<strong> 10% of the world&rsquo;s population.</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>Summit Participation</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Summits are held annually and <strong>hosted on a rotation</strong> <strong>basis</strong> by the group's members. The host country not only holds the G7 presidency but also <strong>sets the agenda</strong> for the year.</li>
<li><strong>Invitation to Global leaders</strong> are sent by host nation to participate in summit as special invitees. Countries like <strong>China, India, Mexico,</strong> and <strong>Brazil</strong> have attended summit at various occasions.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong>leaders of important international organizations</strong> like <strong>European Union, IMF, World Bank and the United Nations</strong> are also invited.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Sherpas</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The groundwork for the Summit, including matters to be discussed and follow-up meetings, is done by the &ldquo;sherpas&rdquo;, who are generally personal representatives or members of diplomatic staff such as ambassadors.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1569926717_image1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1569926717_image1.jpg" width="648" height="425" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" caption="false" /></a></p>
<h3>G-7 and G-20</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>G-20 was founded in 1999 after the <strong>Asian financial crisis in 1997-1998,</strong> it initially started off as a <strong>meeting of finance ministers and central bank governors.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>However, as a response to the <strong>financial crisis of 2008,</strong> the G-20 was upgraded to <strong>head of state level</strong> in an inaugural summit in Washington, D.C.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>While the G-7 mainly has to do with politics, the G-20 is a broader group that focuses on the global economy. It&rsquo;s also known as the <strong>&ldquo;Summit on Financial Markets and the World Economy&rdquo;</strong> and represents <strong>80%</strong> of the global GDP.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Apart from the G-7 countries, the G-20 comprises <strong>Argentina, Australia, Brazil, China, India, Indonesia, Mexico, Russia, Saudi Arabia, South Africa, South Korea,</strong> and <strong>Turkey.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>How the G-7 Lost Power</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Subtle shift of power:</strong> in 2008, while the G-8 talked about food inflation and all kinds of other admittedly important world issues, they <strong>completely missed the 2008 global financial crisis.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong>G-20 stepped in</strong> at their summit and addressed the root of the problem. They requested the United States to regulate its financial markets more.</li>
<li>After that, it became apparent that the<strong> G-20 emerging market countries,</strong> which had largely escaped the crisis, were necessary partners of any global initiative.</li>
<li>The <strong>G-20 Summit superseded the G-8</strong> as the world's most important meeting of all global leaders.</li>
<li>As a result, it signaled <strong>the end of the old world order</strong> and the beginning of a new one.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The forum's small and relatively homogenous membership promotes <strong>collective decision-making,</strong> but critics note that it often lacks follow-through and that <strong>its membership excludes important emerging powers.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The G-7 is an <strong>informal bloc</strong> and takes <strong>no mandatory decisions,</strong> so the leaders&rsquo; declarations at the end of the summit are <strong>not binding.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The evolution of G-20 which represents the aspiration of emerging economies like India, China, Brazil etc had challenged the west dominated groupings like G-7.</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1569926993_image2.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1569926993_image2.jpg" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" caption="false" width="686" height="424" /></a></p>
<h3>G-7 and FATF</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In response to mounting concern over <strong>money laundering, the Financial Action Task Force on Money Laundering (FATF)</strong> was established by the <strong>G-7 groping in Paris in 1989.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In 2001 its mandate expanded to include <strong>terrorism financing.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Recognising the threat posed to the banking system and financial institutions, the G-7 Heads of State or Government and President of the European Commission convened the Task Force from the G-7 member States, the European Commission and eight other countries.</li>
<li>The FATF&rsquo;s primary objective is to ensure that <strong>&ldquo;financial systems and the broader economy are protected from the threats of money laundering and the financing of terrorism and proliferation, thereby strengthening financial sector integrity and contributing to safety and security.&rdquo;</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>India and 45<sup>th</sup> G-7 summit</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The <strong>45<sup>th</sup> G-7 summit</strong> was hosted by <strong>France in August, 2019,</strong> at <strong>Biarritz in Nouvelle-Aquitaine, France.</strong></li>
<li>French President invited<strong> four partner countries,</strong> which <strong>promote democracy</strong> and have significant regional influence <strong>(Australia, Chile, India and South Africa);</strong> <strong>five</strong> <strong>African partners</strong> (Burkina Faso, Senegal, Rwanda and South Africa, and the African Union Commission (AUC) Chair Moussa Faki); and civil society representatives.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India&rsquo;s presence at the G7 is an acknowledgement of the changing world order and India&rsquo;s growing importance as a major economic power.</li>
<li>There is a growing realization that revamping the post-world war order for the twenty-first century will require a leadership from emerging economies, especially from Asia and Africa.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The <strong>five related priorities</strong> of the Summit:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Fighting <strong>inequality of opportunity,</strong> promoting <strong>gender equality</strong> and access to <strong>education</strong> and <strong>high-quality health services,</strong> in particular;</li>
<li><strong>Reducing environmental inequality</strong> by protecting the planet through climate finance and <strong>just ecological transition,</strong> based on <strong>preserving biodiversity</strong> and the oceans;</li>
<li>Working toward <strong>peace, and against security threats and terrorism;</strong></li>
<li>Exploiting opportunities created by <strong>digital technology and artificial intelligence (AI)</strong> in an <strong>ethical and human-oriented way;</strong> and</li>
<li><strong>Combating inequality</strong> through a renewed partnership with Africa.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Indian Prime Minister participated in two sessions at the summit, on <strong>climate change</strong> and <strong>digitization,</strong> signaling India&rsquo;s growing willingness to lead on issues that are points of contention for the transatlantic members.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Indian Prime minister highlighted India&rsquo;s efforts towards climate protection by eliminating single-use plastic, conserving water, harnessing solar energy and, preserving the flora and fauna for a sustainable future in his address to a G7 session on environment.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Outcome of 45<sup>th</sup> G-7 summit</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The G-7 has discussed issues such as financial crises, and has aimed to tackle specific challenges, such as the economic changeover of ex-Soviet bloc nations, terrorism, arms control, and drug trafficking, among others.</li>
<li>The Summit adopted the <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/g7-summit" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>G7 Leaders&rsquo; Declaration,</strong> </a>which focuses on trade, Iran, Libya, Ukraine and Hong Kong.</li>
<li>It was agreed at the summit that <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong>World Trade Organization</strong> with regard to <strong>intellectual property protection,</strong> to settle disputes more swiftly and to eliminate unfair trade practices.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>To simplify regulatory barriers and modernize international taxation within the framework of the <strong>Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development</strong> (OECD).</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Iran:</strong> to ensure that <strong>Iran never acquires nuclear weapons</strong> and to foster peace and stability in the region.</li>
<li><strong>Libya:</strong> to support a <strong>truce in Libya</strong> that will lead to a <strong>long-term ceasefire.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Ukraine :</strong> to address the <strong>Russian military intervention in Ukraine.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Hong Kong:</strong> to address 2019 <strong>Hong Kong anti-extradition bill protests.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>',
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	(int) 8 => object(Cake\ORM\Entity) {

		'article_id' => (int) 3159,
		'category_id' => (int) 60,
		'title' => 'Arctic Council',
		'description' => '<p>The <strong>Arctic Council</strong> is the leading <strong>intergovernmental forum</strong> promoting <strong>cooperation, coordination</strong> and <strong>interaction</strong> among the <strong>Arctic States, Arctic indigenous communities</strong> and <strong>other Arctic inhabitants</strong> on common Arctic issues, in particular on issues of <strong>sustainable development and environmental protection</strong> in the Arctic.</p>
<p>The Arctic Council works as a consensus-based body to deal with issues such as the change in biodiversity, melting sea ice, plastic pollution and black carbon.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1568719428_image1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1568719428_image1.jpg" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" caption="false" width="469" height="524" /></a></p>
<h3>History of Arctic Council</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The formation of <strong>Arctic Council</strong> can be traced in the establishment of the <strong>Arctic Environmental Protection Strategy (AEPS)</strong> in 1991 as a framework for <strong>intergovernmental cooperation on environmental protection</strong> initiatives among the Arctic States including <strong>Canada, Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, Sweden, Russia, and the United States.</strong></li>
<li>The AEPS tried to consult and engage <strong>Arctic indigenous people</strong> in recognition of their right over their ancestral homelands.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Three <strong>Indigenous Peoples Organizations (IPOs)</strong> representing <strong>Inuit (Inuit Circumpolar Council, ICC), Saami (Saami Council, SC),</strong> and <strong>Russian indigenous peoples (Russian Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North, RAIPON),</strong> respectively, were welcomed as observers in the AEPS.</li>
<li>As a consequence of a growing recognition of the special relationship of indigenous peoples to the Arctic region, the Arctic countries assigned the <strong>special status </strong>of<strong> Permanent Participants (PPs)</strong> to the three IPOs, thereby giving them a <strong>privileged status</strong> compared to the other AEPS Observers.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Formation of the Arctic Council</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The <strong>Arctic Council</strong> is a <strong>high-level intergovernmental body</strong> set up in 1996 by the <strong>Ottawa declaration</strong> to promote <strong>cooperation, coordination and interaction</strong> among the<strong> Arctic States</strong> together with the <strong>indigenous communities</strong> and other <strong>Arctic inhabitants.</strong></li>
<li>The Council has the <strong>eight circumpolar countries</strong> as member states and is mandated to protect the Arctic environment and promote the economies and social and cultural well-being of the indigenous people whose organizations are permanent participants in the council.</li>
<li><strong>Arctic Council Secretariat:</strong> The standing <strong>Arctic Council Secretariat</strong> formally became operational in 2013 in <strong>Troms&oslash;, Norway.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It was established to provide administrative capacity, institutional memory, enhanced communication and outreach and general support to the activities of the Arctic Council.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The Council has <strong>members, ad hoc observer countries</strong> and <strong>"permanent participants"</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Members of the Arctic Council:</strong> Ottawa Declaration declares <strong>Canada, the Kingdom of Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, the Russian Federation, Sweden</strong> and <strong>the United States of America</strong> as a member of the Arctic Council.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Denmarks represents <strong>Greenland and the Faroe Islands.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Permanent participants:</strong> In 1998, the number of Permanent Participants doubled to make up the present six, as,the <strong>Aleut International Association (AIA),</strong> and then, in 2000, the <strong>Arctic Athabaskan Council (AAC)</strong> and the <strong>Gwich'in Council International (GGI)</strong> were appointed <strong>Permanent Participants.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Observer status:</strong> It is open to <strong>non-Arctic states,</strong> along with <strong>inter-governmental, inter-parliamentary, global, regional</strong> and <strong>non-governmental organizations</strong> that the<strong> Council determines</strong> can contribute to its work. It is approved by the Council at the Ministerial Meetings that occur once every two years<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Arctic Council Observers primarily contribute through their engagement in the Council at the level of <strong>Working Groups.</strong></li>
<li>Observers have<strong> no voting rights</strong> in the Council.</li>
<li>As of May 2019,<strong> thirteen non-Arctic states</strong> have Observer status.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Germany, 1998</li>
<li>Netherlands, 1998</li>
<li>Poland, 1998</li>
<li>United Kingdom, 1998</li>
<li>France, 2000</li>
<li>Spain, 2006</li>
<li>China, 2013</li>
<li>India, 2013</li>
<li>Italy, 2013</li>
<li>Japan, 2013</li>
<li>South Korea, 2013</li>
<li>Singapore, 2013</li>
<li>Switzerland, 2017</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Criterion for Admitting Observers</h3>
<p>In the determination by the Council of the general suitability of an applicant for observer status the Council will, inter alia, take into account the extent to which observers:</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Accept and support the <strong>objectives of the Arctic Council</strong> defined in the Ottawa declaration.</li>
<li>Recognize Arctic State&rsquo;s <strong>sovereignty, sovereign rights and jurisdiction</strong> in the Arctic.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India has therefore officially recognised the territorial jurisdiction and sovereign rights of the Arctic states.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Recognize that an <strong>extensive legal framework</strong> applies to the Arctic Ocean including, notably, <strong>the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS),</strong> and that this framework provides a solid foundation for responsible management of this ocean.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India has also accepted the UNCLOS as the governing instrument for the Arctic implying that jurisdiction over both the continental shelf and maritime passage, and the resources of the ocean will primarily lay with the eight Arctic States.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Respect the values, interests, culture and traditions</strong> of Arctic indigenous peoples and other Arctic inhabitants.</li>
<li>Have demonstrated a <strong>political willingness</strong> as well as <strong>financial ability</strong> to contribute to the work of the Permanent Participants and other Arctic indigenous peoples.</li>
<li>Have demonstrated their <strong>Arctic interests and expertise relevant</strong> to the work of the Arctic Council.</li>
<li>Have demonstrated a concrete interest and <strong>ability to support the work of the Arctic Council,</strong> including through partnerships with member states and Permanent Participants bringing Arctic concerns to global decision making bodies.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Mechanism of Council</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The work of the Council is primarily carried out in <strong>six Working Groups.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Arctic Contaminants Action Program (ACAP):</strong> it acts as a strengthening and supporting mechanism to encourage national actions to reduce emissions and other releases of pollutants.</li>
<li><strong>Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme (AMAP):</strong> it monitors the Arctic environment, ecosystems and human populations, and provides scientific advice to support governments as they tackle pollution and adverse effects of climate change.</li>
<li><strong>Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna Working Group (CAFF):</strong> it addresses the conservation of Arctic biodiversity, working to ensure the sustainability of the Arctic&rsquo;s living resources.</li>
<li><strong>Emergency Prevention, Preparedness and Response Working Group (EPPR):</strong> it works to protect the Arctic environment from the threat or impact of an accidental release of pollutants or radionuclides.</li>
<li><strong>Protection of the Arctic Marine Environment (PAME) Working Group:</strong> it is the focal point of the Arctic Council&rsquo;s activities related to the protection and sustainable use of the Arctic marine environment.</li>
<li><strong>Sustainable Development Working Group (SDWG):</strong> it works to advance sustainable development in the Arctic and to improve the conditions of Arctic communities as a whole.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Working of Council</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Arctic Council assessments and recommendations are the result of analysis and efforts undertaken by the Working Groups. Decisions of the Arctic Council are taken by <strong>consensus among the eight Arctic Council States,</strong> with <strong>full consultation and involvement</strong> of the <strong>Permanent Participants.</strong></li>
<li>The <strong>Chairmanship of the Arctic Council</strong> rotates every<strong> two years among the Arctic States.</strong> The <strong>first country to chair the Arctic Council</strong> was Canada <strong>(1996-1998).</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The next country to assume the Chairmanship will be <strong>Iceland (2019-2021).</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Accomplishment of Council</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Arctic Council regularly produces comprehensive, cutting-edge environmental, ecological and social assessments through its Working Groups.</li>
<li>The Council has also provided a forum for the negotiation of <strong>three important legally binding agreements</strong> among the eight Arctic States.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The first, the <strong>Agreement on Cooperation on Aeronautical and Maritime Search and Rescue in the Arctic,</strong> was signed in <strong>Nuuk, Greenland,</strong> at the 2011 Ministerial Meeting.</li>
<li>The second, the Agreement on Cooperation on Marine Oil Pollution Preparedness and Response in the Arctic, was signed in <strong>Kiruna, Sweden,</strong> at the 2013 Ministerial meeting.</li>
<li>Third, the <strong>Agreement on Enhancing International Arctic Scientific Cooperation,</strong> was signed in <strong>Fairbanks, Alaska</strong> at the 2017 Ministerial meeting.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>India and the Arctic</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India launched its first <strong>scientific expedition</strong> to the <strong>Arctic Ocean in 2007</strong> and opened a research base named<strong> "Himadri&rdquo;</strong> at the <strong>International Arctic Research Base at Ny-Alesund, Svalbard, Norway in July 2008</strong> for carrying out studies in disciplines like <strong>Glaciology, Atmospheric sciences &amp; Biological sciences.</strong></li>
<li>The <strong>major objectives of the Indian Research in Arctic Region</strong> are as follows:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>To study the <strong>hypothesized tele-connections</strong> between the Arctic climate and the Indian monsoon by analyzing the sediment and ice core records from the Arctic glaciers and the Arctic Ocean.</li>
<li>To <strong>characterize sea ice in the Arctic using satellite data</strong> to estimate the effect of global warming in the northern polar region.</li>
<li>To conduct research on the <strong>dynamics and mass budget of Arctic glaciers</strong> focusing on the effect of glaciers on sea-level change.</li>
<li>To carry out a <strong>comprehensive assessment of the flora and fauna</strong> of the Arctic and their response to anthropogenic activities. In addition, it is proposed to undertake a comparative study of the life forms from both the Polar Regions</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>India has been closely following the developments in the Arctic region in the light of the new opportunities and challenges emerging for the international community due to <strong>global warming</strong> induced melting of Arctic&rsquo;s ice cap. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India&rsquo;s interests in the Arctic region are <strong>scientific, environmental, commercial as well as strategic.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>In July 2018, Ministry of Earth Sciences</strong> renamed the<strong> &ldquo;National Centre for Antarctic and Ocean Research&rdquo;</strong> to the <strong>&ldquo;National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research.&rdquo;</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It is a <strong>nodal organisation</strong> coordinating the research activities at the stations at the poles.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>India has also entered into MOU with <strong>Norwegian Polar Research Institute</strong> of Norway, for cooperation in science, and also with <strong>Kings Bay</strong> (A Norwegian Government owned company) at <strong>Ny-Alesund</strong> for the logistic and infrastructure facilities for undertaking Arctic research and maintaining Indian Research base <strong>&lsquo;Himadri&rsquo;</strong> at Arctic region.</li>
<li>In 2019, India has been <strong>re-elected as an Observer</strong> to the Council.</li>
<li>India does not have an official Arctic policy and its Arctic research objectives have been centred on ecological and environmental aspects, with a focus on climate change, till now.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Commercial and Strategic Interests</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Arctic region is very rich in minerals, and oil and gas. With some parts of the Arctic melting due to global warming, the region also opens up the <strong>possibility of new shipping routes</strong> that can reduce existing distances. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Countries already have ongoing activities in the Arctic hope to have a stake in the commercial exploitation of natural resources present in the region.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The Arctic Council <strong>does not prohibit the commercial exploitation</strong> of resources in the Arctic. It only seeks to ensure that it is done in a <strong>sustainable manner</strong> without harming the interests of local populations and in conformity with the local environment.</li>
<li>Therefore, to stay relevant in the Arctic region, India should take advantage of the observer status it has earned in the Arctic Council and consider investing more in the Arctic.</li>
</ul>',
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	(int) 9 => object(Cake\ORM\Entity) {

		'article_id' => (int) 3106,
		'category_id' => (int) 63,
		'title' => 'Supreme Court of India',
		'description' => '<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The <strong>Supreme Court of India</strong> is the <strong>highest judicial</strong> <strong>court</strong> and the <strong>final court of appeal</strong> under the Constitution of India, the <strong>highest constitutional court,</strong> with the power of <strong>judicial review.</strong></li>
<li>India is a federal State and has a <strong>single and unified judicial system</strong> with <strong>three tier structure,</strong> i.e. Supreme Court, High Courts and Subordinate Courts.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Brief History of the Supreme Court of India</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The promulgation of <strong>Regulating Act of 1773</strong> established the <strong>Supreme Court of Judicature at Calcutta</strong> as a <strong>Court of Record, with full power &amp; authority.</strong></li>
<li><strong>It was established</strong> to hear and determine all complaints for any crimes and also to entertain, hear and determine any suits or actions in <strong>Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.</strong></li>
<li>The <strong>Supreme Courts at Madras and Bombay</strong> were established by <strong>King George &ndash; III</strong> in <strong>1800 and 1823 respectively.</strong></li>
<li>The <strong>India High Courts Act 1861</strong> created High Courts for various provinces and <strong>abolished Supreme Courts at Calcutta, Madras and Bombay</strong> and also the <strong>Sadar Adalats in Presidency towns.</strong></li>
<li>These High Courts had the distinction of being the highest Courts for all cases till the creation of <strong>Federal Court of India</strong> under the <strong>Government of India Act 1935.</strong></li>
<li>The <strong>Federal Court</strong> had jurisdiction to solve disputes between provinces and federal states and hear appeal against Judgements from High Courts.</li>
<li>After India attained independence in 1947, the Constitution of India came into being on <strong>26 January 1950.</strong> The <strong>Supreme Court of India</strong> also came into existence and its first sitting was held on 28 January 1950.</li>
<li>The law declared by the Supreme Court is <strong>binding on all Courts</strong> within the territory of India.</li>
<li>It has the power of <strong>judicial review</strong> &ndash; to strike down the legislative and executive action contrary to the provisions and the scheme of the constitution, the distribution of power between Union and States or inimical to the fundamental rights guaranteed by the Constitution.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Constitutional Provisions</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Indian constitution provides for a provision of Supreme Court under <strong>Part V (The Union)</strong> and <strong>Chapter 6 (The Union Judiciary).</strong></li>
<li><strong>Articles 124 to 147 in Part V</strong> of the Constitution deal with the organisation, independence, jurisdiction, powers and procedures of the Supreme Court.</li>
<li>The Indian constitution under <strong>Article 124(1)</strong> states that there shall be a Supreme Court of India constituting of a Chief Justice of India (CJI) and, until Parliament by law prescribes a larger number, of not more than seven other Judges.</li>
<li>The Jurisdiction of the Supreme Court of India can broadly be categorised into <strong>original jurisdiction, appellate jurisdiction and advisory jurisdiction.</strong> However, there are other multiple powers of the Supreme Court.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Organisation of Supreme Court</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>At present, the Supreme Court consists of thirty-one judges (one chief justice and thirty other judges). <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Supreme Court (Number of Judges) Bill of 2019</strong> has added four judges to strength. It increased the judicial strength from 31 to 34, including the CJI.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Originally, the strength of the Supreme Court was fixed at eight (one chief justice and seven other judges).</li>
<li>The Parliament is authorised to regulate them.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Seat of Supreme Court</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The <strong>Constitution declares Delhi as the seat of the Supreme Court.</strong> It also authorises the <strong>CJI</strong> to appoint other place or places as seat of the Supreme Court.</li>
<li>He can take decision in this regard only with the approval of the President. <strong>This provision is only optional and not compulsory.</strong> This means that no court can give any direction either to the President or to the Chief Justice to appoint any other place as the seat of the Supreme Court.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Appointment of Judges</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The <strong>judges of the Supreme Court</strong> are appointed by the <strong>President.</strong> The CJI is appointed by the President after <strong>consultation with such judges of the Supreme Court</strong> and high courts as he deems necessary.</li>
<li>The other judges are appointed by the President after <strong>consultation</strong> with the CJI and such other judges of the Supreme Court and the high courts as he deems necessary. The consultation with the chief justice is <strong>obligatory</strong> in the case of appointment of a judge other than Chief justice.</li>
<li><strong>Appointment of Chief Justice From 1950 to 1973:</strong> The practice has been to appoint the senior most judge of the Supreme Court as the chief justice of India. This established convention was violated in 1973 when <strong>A N Ray</strong> was appointed as the <strong>Chief Justice of India by superseding three senior judges.</strong> Again in 1977, M U Beg was appointed as the chief justice of India by superseding the then senior-most judge.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>This discretion of the government was curtailed by the Supreme Court in the <strong>Second Judges Case (1993),</strong> in which the Supreme Court ruled that <strong>the senior most judge of the Supreme Court</strong> should <strong>alone be appointed to the office of the Chief Justice of India.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Controversy over Consultation and Evolution of Collegium system</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Supreme Court has given different interpretations of the word &lsquo;consultation&rsquo; in the above mentioned provisions. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In the <strong>First Judges case (1982),</strong> the Court held that consultation does not mean concurrence and it only implies exchange of views.</li>
<li>In the <strong>Second Judges case (1993),</strong> the Court reversed its earlier ruling and changed the meaning of the word consultation to <strong>concurrence.</strong></li>
<li>In the <strong>Third Judges case (1998),</strong> the Court opined that the consultation process to be adopted by the <strong>Chief Justice of India</strong> requires <strong>&lsquo;consultation of plurality judges&rsquo;.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The sole opinion of the CJI does not constitute the consultation process. He should consult a <strong>collegium of four senior most judges of the Supreme Court</strong> and even if two judges give an adverse opinion, he should not send the recommendation to the government.</li>
<li>The court held that <strong>the recommendation made by the chief justice of India</strong> without complying with the norms and requirements of the consultation process are not binding on the government.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Collegium System</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Collegium system was born through <strong>&ldquo;three judges case&rdquo;</strong> and it is in practice since 1998. It is used for appointments and transfers of judges in High courts and Supreme Courts.</li>
<li>There is no mention of the Collegium either in the original Constitution of India or in successive amendments</li>
</ul>
<h3>Working of Collegium System and NJAC</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The collegium recommends of the names of lawyers or judges to the Central Government. Similarly, the Central Government also sends some of its proposed names to the Collegium.</li>
<li>Collegium considers the names or suggestions made by the Central Government and resends the file to the government for final approval. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>If the <strong>Collegium resends</strong> the same name again then the government has to give its assent to the names. But <strong>time limit is not fixed</strong> to reply. This is the reason that appointment of judges takes a long time.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Through the <strong>99<sup>th</sup> Constitutional Amendment Act, 2014 the National Judicial Commission Act (NJAC)</strong> was established to replace the collegium system for the appointment of judges.</li>
<li>However, the Supreme Court <strong>upheld the collegium system and struck down the NJAC as unconstitutional</strong> on the grounds that the involvement of <strong>Political Executive</strong> in judicial appointment was <strong>against the &ldquo;Principles of Basic Structure&rdquo;. I.e.</strong> the<strong> &ldquo;Independence of Judiciary&rdquo;.</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>Qualifications of Judges</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A person to be appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court should have the following qualifications: <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He should be a <strong>citizen of India.</strong></li>
<li>He should have been a <strong>judge of a High Court</strong> (or high courts in succession) <strong>for five years;</strong> or</li>
<li>He should have been an advocate of a High Court (or High Courts in succession) for ten years; or</li>
<li>He should be <strong>a distinguished jurist in the opinion of the president.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The Constitution <strong>has not prescribed a minimum age</strong> for appointment as a judge of the Supreme Court.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Oath or Affirmation</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A person appointed as a judge of the Supreme Court, before entering upon his office, has to make and subscribe to an <strong>oath or affirmation before the President,</strong> or some other person appointed by him for this purpose. In his oath, a judge of the Supreme Court swears:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>to bear true faith and allegiance to the Constitution of India;</li>
<li>to uphold the sovereignty and integrity of India;</li>
<li>to duly and faithfully and to the best of his ability, knowledge and judgement to perform the duties of the Office without fear or favour, affection or ill-will; and</li>
<li>to uphold the Constitution and the laws.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Tenure of Judges</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Constitution has not fixed the tenure of a judge of the Supreme Court. However, it makes the following three provisions in this regard:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He holds office until he attains the age of 65 years. Any question regarding his age is to be determined by such authority and in such manner as provided by Parliament.</li>
<li>He can resign his office by writing to the President.</li>
<li>He can be removed from his office by the President on the recommendation of the Parliament.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Removal of Judges</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A judge of the Supreme Court can be removed from his office by an <strong>order of the President.</strong> The President can issue the removal order only after an address by Parliament has been presented to him in the same session for such removal.</li>
<li>The address must be supported by a <strong>special majority</strong> of each House of Parliament (ie, a majority of the total membership of that House and a majority of not less than <strong>two-thirds of the members</strong> of that House present and voting). The grounds of removal are two<strong>&mdash;proved misbehaviour or incapacity.</strong></li>
<li><strong>The Judges Enquiry Act (1968)</strong> regulates the procedure relating to the removal of a judge of the Supreme Court by the process of impeachment:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>No judge of the Supreme Court has been impeached</strong> so far. Impeachment motions of Justice V Ramaswami (1991&ndash;1993) and the Justice Dipak Misra (2017-18) were defeated in the Parliament.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Salaries and Allowances</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The salaries, allowances, privileges, leave and pension of the judges of the Supreme Court are <strong>determined from time to time by the Parliament.</strong> They cannot be varied to their disadvantage after their appointment except during a financial emergency.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Acting Chief Justice</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The President can appoint a judge of the Supreme Court as an acting Chief Justice of India when:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>the office of Chief Justice of India is vacant; or</li>
<li>the Chief Justice of India is temporarily absent; or</li>
<li>the Chief Justice of India is unable to perform the duties of his office.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Ad hoc Judge</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>When there is a <strong>lack of quorum</strong> of the permanent judges to hold or continue any session of the Supreme Court, <strong>the Chief Justice of India</strong> can <strong>appoint a judge of a High Court as an ad hoc judge of the Supreme Court</strong> for a temporary period. He can do so only after consultation with the Chief Justice of the High Court concerned and with the previous consent of the president.</li>
<li>The judge so appointed should be <strong>qualified for appointment as a judge of the Supreme Court.</strong> It is the duty of the judge so appointed to attend the sittings of the Supreme Court, in priority to other duties of his office. While so attending, he enjoys all the jurisdiction, powers and privileges (and discharges the duties) of a judge of the Supreme Court.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Retired Judges</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>At any time, the <strong>CJI can request a retired judge</strong> of the Supreme Court or a retired judge of a high court (who is duly qualified for appointment as a judge of the Supreme Court) to act as a judge of the Supreme Court for a temporary period.</li>
<li>He can do so only with the <strong>previous consent of the President</strong> and also of the person to be so appointed. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Such a judge is entitled to such allowances as the president may determine. He will also enjoy all the jurisdiction, powers and privileges of a judge of the Supreme Court. But, he will not otherwise be deemed to be a judge of the Supreme Court.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Procedure of Court</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Supreme Court can, with the approval of the President, make rules for regulating generally the practice and procedure of the court.</li>
<li>The <strong>Constitutional cases or references</strong> made by the President under <strong>Article 143</strong> are decided by a <strong>Bench consisting of at least five judges.</strong> All other cases are usually decided by a bench consisting of not less than three judges. The judgements are delivered by the open court. All judgements are by majority vote but if differing, then judges can give dissenting judgements or opinions.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Independence of Supreme Court</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Supreme Court is a <strong>Federal court, the highest court of appeal, the guarantor of the fundamental rights of the citizens</strong> and <strong>guardian of the Constitution.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Therefore, its independence becomes very essential for the effective discharge of the duties assigned to it. It should be free from the encroachments, pressures and interferences of the executive (council of ministers) and the Legislature (Parliament). It should be allowed to do justice without fear or favour.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The Constitution has made the following provisions to <strong>safeguard and ensure the independent and impartial</strong> functioning of the Supreme Court:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Mode of appointment</li>
<li>Security of tenure</li>
<li>Fixed service conditions</li>
<li>Expenses charged on the consolidated fund</li>
<li>Conduct of judges cannot be discussed</li>
<li>Ban on practice after retirement</li>
<li>Power to punish for its contempt</li>
<li>Freedom to appoint its staff</li>
<li>Its jurisdiction cannot be curtailed</li>
<li>Separation from Executive</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Jurisdiction and Powers of Supreme Court</h3>
<p><strong>Original Jurisdiction</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>As a Federal court, the Supreme Court decides disputes between different units of the Indian Federation. More elaborately, any dispute between:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>the Centre and one or more states; or</li>
<li>the Centre and any state or states on one side and one or more states on the other; or</li>
<li>between two or more states.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>In the above federal disputes, the Supreme Court has <strong>exclusive original jurisdiction.</strong></li>
<li>Further, this jurisdiction of the Supreme Court <strong>does not extend</strong> to the following:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>A dispute arising out of any pre-Constitution treaty, agreement, covenant,</li>
<li>engagement, sanad or other similar instrument.</li>
<li>A dispute arising out of any treaty, agreement, etc.,which specifically provides that the said jurisdiction does not extent to such a dispute.</li>
<li>Inter-state water disputes.</li>
<li>Matters referred to the Finance Commission.</li>
<li>Adjustment of certain expenses and pensions between the Centre and the states.</li>
<li>Ordinary dispute of Commercial nature between the Centre and the states.</li>
<li>Recovery of damages by a state against the Centre.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Writ Jurisdiction</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Supreme Court is empowered to issue writs, including <strong>habeas corpus, mandamus, prohibition, quo-warranto and certiorari</strong> for the enforcement of the fundamental rights of an aggrieved citizen. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In this regard, the Supreme Court has <strong>original jurisdiction</strong> in the sense that an aggrieved citizen can go directly to the Supreme Court, not necessarily by way of appeal.</li>
<li>However, the writ jurisdiction of the Supreme Court is not exclusive. The High Courts are also empowered to issue writs for the enforcement of the Fundamental Rights.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Appellate Jurisdiction</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Supreme Court is primarily a court of appeal and hears appeals against the judgements of the lower courts. It enjoys a wide appellate jurisdiction which can be classified under four heads:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Appeals in constitutional matters</li>
<li>Appeals in civil matters</li>
<li>Appeals in criminal matters</li>
<li>Appeals by special leave</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Advisory Jurisdiction</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Constitution <strong>under Article 143</strong> authorises the President to seek the opinion of the Supreme Court in the two categories of matters:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>On any question of law or fact of public importance which has arisen or which is likely to arise.</li>
<li>On any dispute arising out of any pre-constitution treaty, agreement, covenant, engagement, sanador other similar instruments.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>A Court of Record</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>As a Court of Record, the Supreme Court has two powers:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The judgements, proceedings and acts of the Supreme Court are recorded for perpetual memory and testimony. These records are admitted to be of evidentiary value and cannot be questioned when produced before any court.</li>
<li>They are <strong>recognised as legal precedents and legal references.</strong></li>
<li>It has power to<strong> punish for contempt of court,</strong> either with simple imprisonment for a term up to six months or with fine up to 2,000 or with both.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Power of Judicial Review</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Judicial review is the power of the Supreme Court to examine the constitutionality of legislative enactments and executive orders of both the Central and state governments.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>On examination, if they are found to be <strong>violative of the Constitution (ultra-vires),</strong> they can be declared as <strong>illegal, unconstitutional and invalid (null and void)</strong> by the Supreme Court. Consequently, they cannot be enforced by the Government.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Recent issues in Supreme Court</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Master of Roster:</strong> It refers to the privilege of the Chief Justice to constitute Benches to hear cases.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The controversy has emerged in the Supreme Court over <strong>absolute power of Chief Justice</strong> on the judicial administration.</li>
<li>The SC has upheld a number of times that &ldquo;the Chief Justice is the master of the roster and he alone has the prerogative to constitute the Benches of the Court and allocate cases to the Benches so constituted.&rdquo;</li>
<li>Be it the Chief Justice of India or Chief Justice of any high court it is he or she who heads the <strong>administrative</strong> side. This includes allocation of matters before a judge as well.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>So, no Judge can take up the matter on his own, unless allocated by the Chief Justice of India.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
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		'article_id' => (int) 3036,
		'category_id' => (int) 60,
		'title' => 'South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC)',
		'description' => '<p>The South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) was established with the signing of the <strong>SAARC Charter</strong> in Dhaka on 8 December 1985.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The idea of regional cooperation in South Asia was first raised in November 1980. After consultations, the foreign secretaries of the seven founding countries&mdash;Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Maldives, Nepal, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka&mdash;met for the first time in Colombo in April 1981. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Afghanistan became the newest member of SAARC at the 13th annual summit in 2005.</li>
<li>The <strong>Headquarters and Secretariat</strong> of the Association are at <strong>Kathmandu, Nepal</strong>.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Principles</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Cooperation within the framework of the SAARC shall be based on:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Respect for the principles of <strong>sovereign equality, territorial integrity, political independence, non-interference</strong> in the internal affairs of other States and mutual benefit.</li>
<li>Such cooperation shall not be a substitute for bilateral and multilateral cooperation but shall complement them.</li>
<li>Such cooperation shall not be inconsistent with bilateral and multilateral obligations.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Members of SAARC</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>SAARC comprises of eight member States: <a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/828sm-830x587.png" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/828sm-830x587.png" width="618" height="437" style="float: right;" /></a><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Afghanistan</li>
<li>Bangladesh</li>
<li>Bhutan</li>
<li>India</li>
<li>Maldives</li>
<li>Nepal</li>
<li>Pakistan</li>
<li>Sri Lanka</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>There are currently nine Observers to SAARC, namely: (i) Australia; (ii) China; (iii) the European Union; (iv) Iran; (v) Japan; (vi) the Republic of Korea; (vii) Mauritius; (viii) Myanmar; and (ix) the United States of America.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Areas of Cooperation</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Human Resource Development and Tourism</li>
<li>Agriculture and Rural Development</li>
<li>Environment, Natural Disasters and Biotechnology</li>
<li>Economic, Trade and Finance</li>
<li>Social Affairs</li>
<li>Information and Poverty Alleviation</li>
<li>Energy, Transport, Science and Technology</li>
<li>Education, Security and Culture and Others</li>
</ul>
<h3>The Objectives of the SAARC</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>To <strong>promote the welfare</strong> of the people of South Asia and to improve their quality of life.</li>
<li>To <strong>accelerate economic growth,</strong> social progress and cultural development in the region and to provide all individuals the opportunity to live in dignity and to realize their full potentials.</li>
<li>To <strong>promote and strengthen collective self-reliance</strong> among the countries of South Asia.</li>
<li>To <strong>contribute to mutual trust,</strong> understanding and appreciation of one another&rsquo;s problems..</li>
<li>To <strong>promote active collaboration</strong> and mutual assistance in the economic, social, cultural, technical and scientific fields.</li>
<li><strong>To strengthen cooperation with other developing countries.</strong></li>
<li>To <strong>strengthen cooperation among themselves in international forums</strong> on matters of common interests; and</li>
<li>To cooperate with international and regional organizations with similar aims and purposes.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Principal Organs</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Meeting of Heads of State or Government</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Meetings are held at the Summit level, usually on an annual basis.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Standing Committee of Foreign Secretaries</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Committee provides overall monitoring and coordination, determines priorities, mobilizes resources, and approves projects and financing.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Secretariat</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The SAARC Secretariat was established in Kathmandu on 16 January 1987. Its role is to coordinate and monitor the implementation of SAARC activities, service the meetings of the association and serve as a channel of communication between SAARC and other international organizations.</li>
<li>The Secretariat comprises the secretary-general, seven directors, and the general services staff. The secretary-general is appointed by the Council of Ministers on the principle of rotation, for a non-renewable tenure of three years.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>SAARC Specialized Bodies</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>SAARC Development Fund (SDF):</strong> Its primary objective is funding of project-based collaboration in social sectors such as poverty alleviation, development, etc.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>SDF is governed by a Board consisting of representatives from the Ministry of Finance of the Member States. The Governing Council of SDF (Finance Ministers of MSs) oversees the functioning of the Board.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>South Asian University</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>South Asian University (SAU)</strong> is an international university, located in India. Degrees and Certificates awarded by the SAU are at par with the respective Degrees and Certificates awarded by the National Universities/ Institutions.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>South Asian Regional Standards Organization</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>South Asian Regional Standards Organization</strong> (SARSO) has its Secretariat at <strong>Dhaka, Bangladesh</strong>.</li>
<li>It was established <strong>to achieve and enhance coordination and cooperation among SAARC member states</strong> in the fields of standardization and conformity assessment and is aimed to develop harmonized Standards for the region to facilitate intra-regional trade and to have access in the global market.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>SAARC Arbitration Council</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It is an <strong>inter-governmental body</strong> having its office in <strong>Pakistan</strong> is mandated to provide a legal framework/forum within the region for fair and efficient settlement of commercial, industrial, trade, banking, investment and such other disputes, as may be referred to it by the member states and their people.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>SAARC and its Importance</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>SAARC <strong>comprises 3% of the world's area, 21% of the world's population</strong> and <strong>3.8%</strong> (US$2.9 trillion) <strong>of the global economy</strong>.</li>
<li><strong>Creating synergies:</strong> It is the world&rsquo;s most densely populated region and one of the most fertile areas. SAARC countries have common tradition, dress, food and culture and political aspects thereby synergizing their actions.</li>
<li><strong>Common solutions:</strong> All the SAARC countries have common problems and issues like poverty, illiteracy, malnutrition, natural disasters, internal conflicts, industrial and technological backwardness, low GDP and poor socio-economic condition and uplift their living standards thereby creating common areas of development and progress having common solutions.</li>
</ul>
<h3>SAARC Achievements</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Free Trade Area (FTA):</strong> SAARC is comparatively a new organization in the global arena. The member countries have established a <strong>Free Trade Area (FTA)</strong> which will increase their internal trade and lessen the trade gap of some states considerably.</li>
<li><strong>SAPTA: South Asia Preferential Trading Agreement</strong> for promoting trade amongst the member countries came into effect in 1995.</li>
<li><strong>SAFTA: A Free Trade Agreement</strong> confined to goods, but excluding all services like information technology. Agreement was signed to reduce customs duties of all traded goods to zero by the year 2016.</li>
<li><strong>SAARC Agreement on Trade in Services (SATIS):</strong> SATIS is following the GATS-plus 'positive list' approach for trade in services liberalization.</li>
<li><strong>SAARC University:</strong> Establish a SAARC university in India, a food bank and also an energy reserve in Pakistan.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Significance for India</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Neighbourhood first:</strong> Primacy to the country&rsquo;s immediate neighbours.</li>
<li><strong>Geostrategic significance:</strong> Can counter China (OBOR initiative) through engaging Nepal, Bhutan, the Maldives and Sri Lanka in development process and economic cooperation.</li>
<li><strong>Regional stability:</strong> SAARC can help in creation of mutual trust and peace within the region.</li>
<li><strong>Global leadership role:</strong> It offers India a platform to showcase its leadership in the region by taking up extra responsibilities.</li>
<li><strong>Game changer for India&rsquo;s Act East Policy:</strong> by linking South Asian economies with South East asian will bring further economic integration and prosperity to India mainly in the Services Sector.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Challenges</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Low frequency of meetings:</strong> More engagement is required by the member states and instead of meeting biennial meetings should be held annually.</li>
<li><strong>Broad area of cooperation</strong> leads to diversion of energy and resources.</li>
<li><strong>Limitation in SAFTA:</strong> The implementation of SAFTA has not been satisfactory a Free Trade Agreement confined to goods, excluding all services like information technology.</li>
<li><strong>Indo-Pak Relations:</strong> Escalated tension and conflict between India and Pakistan have severely hampered the prospects of SAARC.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Way Forward</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In a region increasingly targeted by Chinese investment and loans, SAARC could be a common platform to demand more sustainable alternatives for development, or to oppose trade tariffs together, or to demand better terms for South Asian labour around the world.</li>
<li>SAARC, as an organisation, reflects the South Asian identity of the countries, historically and contemporarily. This is a naturally made geographical identity. Equally, there is a cultural, linguistic, religious and culinary affinity that defines South Asia.</li>
<li>The potential of organisation to maintain peace and stability in the region should be explored by all the member countries.</li>
<li>SAARC should be allowed to progress naturally and the people of South Asia, who make up a quarter of the world&rsquo;s population should be offered more people-to-people contact.</li>
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	(int) 11 => object(Cake\ORM\Entity) {

		'article_id' => (int) 2962,
		'category_id' => (int) 63,
		'title' => 'Competition Commission of India',
		'description' => '<p><strong>Competition Commission of India (CCI)</strong> is a <strong>statutory body</strong> of the <strong>Government of India</strong> responsible for enforcing <strong>the Competition Act, 2002,</strong> it was duly constituted in March 2009.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The <strong>Monopolies and Restrictive Trade Practices Act, 1969 (MRTP Act)</strong> was repealed and replaced by the <strong>Competition Act, 2002,</strong> on the recommendations of <strong>Raghavan committee</strong>.</li>
<li>Competition Commission of India aims to establish a robust competitive environment.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Through proactive engagement</strong> with all stakeholders, including consumers, industry, government and international jurisdictions.</li>
<li>By being a knowledge intensive organization with high competence level.</li>
<li>Through professionalism, transparency, resolve and wisdom in enforcement.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Competition Act, 2002</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Competition Act was passed in 2002 and has been amended by the <strong>Competition (Amendment) Act, 2007</strong>. It follows the philosophy of modern competition laws.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Act <strong>prohibits anti-competitive agreements,</strong> abuse of dominant position by enterprises and regulates combinations (acquisition, acquiring of control and M&amp;A), which causes or likely to cause an appreciable adverse effect on competition within India.</li>
<li>In accordance with the provisions of the Amendment Act, <strong>the Competition Commission of India</strong> and the <strong>Competition Appellate Tribunal</strong> have been established.</li>
<li>Government replaced Competition Appellate Tribunal (COMPAT) with the <strong>National Company Law Appellate Tribunal (NCLAT)</strong> in 2017.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Composition of CCI</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Commission consists of one Chairperson and six Members as per the Competition Act who shall be appointed by the Central Government.</li>
<li>The commission is a <strong>quasi-judicial body</strong> which gives opinions to statutory authorities and also deals with other cases. The Chairperson and other Members shall be whole-time Members.</li>
<li><strong>Eligibility of members:</strong> The Chairperson and every other Member shall be a person of ability, integrity and standing and who, has been, or is qualified to be a judge of a High Court, or, has special knowledge of, and professional experience of not less than fifteen years in international trade, economics, business, commerce, law, finance, accountancy, management, industry, public affairs, administration or in any other matter which, in the opinion of the Central Government, may be useful to the Commission.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Functions and Role of CCI</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>To eliminate practices having adverse effect on competition,</strong> promote and sustain competition, protect the interests of consumers and ensure freedom of trade in the markets of India.</li>
<li><strong>To give opinion on competition issues</strong> on a reference received from a statutory authority established under any law and to undertake competition advocacy, create public awareness and impart training on competition issues.</li>
<li>The Competition Commission of India takes the following measures to achieve its <strong>objectives</strong>:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Consumer welfare:</strong> To make the markets work for the benefit and welfare of consumers.</li>
<li><strong>Ensure fair and healthy competition in economic activities</strong> in the country for faster and inclusive growth and development of the economy.</li>
<li><strong>Implement competition policies</strong> with an aim to effectuate the most efficient utilization of economic resources.</li>
<li>Develop and nurture effective relations and interactions with sectoral regulators to <strong>ensure smooth alignment of sectoral regulatory laws in tandem with the competition law</strong>.</li>
<li><strong>Effectively carry out competition advocacy</strong> and spread the information on benefits of competition among all stakeholders to establish and nurture competition culture in Indian economy.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The Competition Commission is India&rsquo;s competition regulator, and an <strong>antitrust watchdog</strong> for smaller organizations that are unable to defend themselves against large corporations.</li>
<li>CCI <strong>has the authority to notify organizations</strong> that sell to India if it feels they may be negatively influencing competition in India&rsquo;s domestic market.</li>
<li>The Competition Act guarantees that no enterprise abuses their <strong>'dominant position'</strong> in a market through the control of supply, manipulating purchase prices, or adopting practices that deny market access to other competing firms.</li>
<li>A foreign company seeking entry into India through an <strong>acquisition or merger</strong> will have to abide by the country&rsquo;s competition laws.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Assets and turnover above a certain monetary value will bring the group under the purview of the Competition Commission of India (CCI).</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Judgements of CCI</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>CCI imposed a fine of ₹63.07 billion (US$910 million) on 11 cement companies for <strong>cartelisation</strong> in June 2012. It claimed that <strong>cement companies</strong> met regularly to fix prices, control market share and hold back supply which earned them illegal profits.</li>
<li>CCI imposed a penalty of ₹522 million (US$7.6 million) on the <strong>Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI)</strong> in 2013, for misusing its <strong>dominant position</strong>.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The CCI found that IPL team ownership agreements were unfair and discriminatory and that the terms of the IPL franchise agreements were loaded in favor of BCCI and franchises had no say in the terms of the contract.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>CCI imposed a fine of ₹10 million upon <strong>Google</strong> in 2014 for failure to comply with the directions given by the Director General (DG) seeking information and documents.</li>
<li>CCI imposed a fine of ₹258 crores upon Three <strong>Airlines</strong> in 2015.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Competition Commission of India (CCI) had penalized the three airlines for <strong>cartelisation</strong> in determining the <strong>fuel surcharge</strong> on air cargo.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>CCI ordered a probe into the functioning of <strong>Cellular Operators Association of India</strong> (COAI) following a complaint filed by <strong>Reliance Jio</strong> against the <strong>cartelization</strong> by its rivals Bharti Airtel, Vodafone India and Idea cellular.</li>
<li>The commission ordered an <strong>antitrust probe</strong> against <strong>Google</strong> for abusing its dominant position with Android to block market rivals. This probe was ordered on the basis of the analysis of a similar case in the EU where Google was found guilty and fined.</li>
<li>CCI issued letters to handset makers in 2019, seeking details of terms and conditions of their agreement with Google.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>This is to ascertain if Google imposed any restrictions on them for using the company's apps in the past 8 years from 2011.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Need of CCI</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Promote free enterprise:</strong> Competition laws have been described as the Magna Carta of free enterprise. Competition is important for the preservation of economic freedom and our free enterprise system.</li>
<li><strong>Protect against market distortions:&nbsp;</strong>The need for competition law arises because market can suffer from failures and distortions, and various players can resort to anti- competitive activities such as cartels, abuse of dominance etc. which adversely impact economic efficiency and consumer welfare.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Thus, there is a need for competition law to provide a regulative force which establishes effective control over economic activities.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Promotes domestic industries:</strong> During the era in which the economies are moving from closed economies to open economies, an effective competition commission is essential to ensure the continued viability of domestic industries, carefully balanced with attaining the benefits of foreign investment increased competition.</li>
</ul>',
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	(int) 12 => object(Cake\ORM\Entity) {

		'article_id' => (int) 2895,
		'category_id' => (int) 60,
		'title' => 'TRAFFIC',
		'description' => '<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The TRAFFIC, the <strong>Wildlife Trade Monitoring Network,</strong> is a leading non-governmental organisation working on wildlife trade in the context of both biodiversity conservation and sustainable development.</li>
<li>It is <strong>a joint program</strong> of World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN).</li>
<li><strong>It was established in 1976</strong> and has developed into a global network, research-driven and action-oriented, committed to delivering <strong>innovative and practical conservation solutions.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Headquarters:</strong> Cambridge, United Kingdom</li>
<li>It aims to ensure that <strong>trade in wild plants and animals is not a threat to the conservation of nature.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Illegal wildlife trade</strong> is one of the <strong>main reasons that many species are endangered.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>For example, rhino poaching to fuel to demand for the illegal rhino horn trade reached an all-time high in 2011, with <strong>448 rhinos poached in South Africa alone.</strong></li>
<li>This could unravel years of conservation success with African rhinos.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Governance</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The TRAFFIC is governed by the <strong>TRAFFIC Committee,</strong> a steering group <strong>composed of members</strong> of TRAFFIC's partner organizations, WWF and IUCN.</li>
<li>TRAFFIC also works in <strong>close co-operation</strong> with the <strong>Secretariat of</strong> the <a href="/important-institutions/drishti-specials-important-institutions-international-institution/cites" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora</strong></a> <strong>(CITES).</strong></li>
<li><strong>Its staff</strong> includes experts from a plethora of backgrounds: <strong>biologists, conservationists, academics, researchers, communicators </strong>or<strong> investigators,</strong> etc.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Functions</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Since its establishment, it has <strong>helped in the evolution of the international wildlife trade treaties.</strong></li>
<li>It focuses on leveraging resources, expertise and <strong>awareness</strong> of the latest globally urgent <strong>species trade issues</strong> such as <strong>tiger parts, elephant ivory </strong>and<strong> rhino horn.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Large scale commercial trade</strong> in commodities like <strong>timber and fisheries products</strong> are also addressed and linked to work on developing rapid results and policy improvements.</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/339Traffic.1000x0.1530281413_1530281413.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/339Traffic.1000x0.1530281413_1530281413.jpg" width="501" height="513" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" caption="false" /></a></p>
<h3>TRAFFIC and India</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>TRAFFIC operates as a <strong>Programme Division</strong> of WWF-India, based in New Delhi since 1991.</li>
<li>It has since worked closely with the National and the State Governments and various agencies to help study, monitor and influence action to curb illegal wildlife trade.</li>
<li><strong>Bridging</strong> the <strong>gap in effective wildlife law enforcement</strong> in India through <strong>capacity building programmes:</strong></li>
<li>Under this programme, <strong>TRAFFIC provides training and inputs</strong> to a diverse group of <strong>officials working on wildlife enforcement</strong> and other related issues.</li>
<li>Conducting research and providing analysis on wildlife trade and its trends:</li>
<li>TRAFFIC India&rsquo;s on-going projects include <strong>study on Leopard and Tiger poaching</strong> and trade in India, <strong>peacock feather trade, owl trade, dynamics of hunting community,</strong> trade in <strong>medicinal plants,</strong> bird trade and more.</li>
<li>Awareness generation:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>&ldquo;Don&rsquo;t Buy Trouble&rdquo;</strong> is one of TRAFFIC India&rsquo;s first <strong>consumer awareness campaign</strong> that <strong>advises tourists to be careful</strong> of what <strong>they buy as souvenirs</strong> during their travels. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The campaign has been running <strong>successfully since 2008 at airports, Tiger reserves,</strong> national parks, wildlife resorts/hotels, travel agencies, schools, colleges and other prominent locations.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>TRAFFIC&rsquo;s <strong>latest campaign</strong> is the <strong>WANTED ALIVE series</strong> on the four Asian big cats- <strong>Tiger, Leopard, Snow Leopard</strong> and <strong>Clouded Leopard</strong>&mdash;all of them <strong>threatened by illegal trade</strong> in their body parts.</li>
<li><strong>Encouraging international collaborations to fight wildlife crime:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>TRAFFIC played a key role in bringing together the South Asian countries to form the <strong>South Asia Wildlife Enforcement Network (SAWEN).</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li><strong>SAWEN</strong> was formally established at an inter-governmental meeting hosted in <strong>Paro</strong> (a town in Bhutan) by the <strong>Royal Government of Bhutan, in January 2011.</strong></li>
<li>The main aim of this initiative is to have the countries collaborate and cooperate to fight wildlife crime in the region.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
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	(int) 13 => object(Cake\ORM\Entity) {

		'article_id' => (int) 2836,
		'category_id' => (int) 63,
		'title' => 'Law Commission of India',
		'description' => '<h3>Introduction</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Law Commission of India is neither a constitutional body nor a statutory body, it is an executive body established by an order of the Government of India. Its major function is to work for <strong>legal reforms</strong>.</li>
<li>The Commission is established for a fixed tenure and works as an <strong>advisory body</strong> to the <strong>Ministry of Law and Justice</strong>.</li>
<li>Its membership primarily comprises legal experts.</li>
</ul>
<h3>History of Law Commission in India</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Law Reform has been a continuing process particularly during the last 300 years or more in Indian history. In the ancient period, when religious and customary law occupied the field, the reform process had been <strong>ad hoc</strong> and <strong>not institutionalised</strong> through duly constituted law reform agencies.</li>
<li>However, since the <strong>third decade</strong> of the <strong>nineteenth century,</strong> Law Commissions were constituted by the Government from time to time and were empowered to recommend legislative reforms to clarify, consolidate and codify particular branches of law where the Government felt the necessity for it. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The first such Commission was established in 1834 under the <strong>Charter Act of 1833</strong> under the Chairmanship of <strong>Lord Macaulay</strong> which recommended <strong>codification of the Penal Code</strong> and <strong>the Criminal Procedure Code</strong>.</li>
<li>Thereafter, the second, third and fourth Law Commissions were constituted in 1853, 1861 and 1879 respectively which, during a span of fifty years contributed to enrich the Indian Statute Book with a large variety of legislations on the pattern of the then prevailing English Laws adapted to Indian conditions.</li>
<li>The <strong>Indian Code of Civil Procedure,</strong> the <strong>Indian Contract Act,</strong> the <strong>Indian Evidence Act,</strong> the <strong>Transfer of Property Act</strong>. etc. are products of the first four Law Commissions.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Post-Independence Developments</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>After independence, the Constitution stipulated the continuation of pre-Constitution Laws <strong>under Article 372</strong> until they are amended or repealed. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>There had been demands in Parliament and outside for establishing a Central Law Commission to recommend revision and updation of the inherited laws to serve the changing needs of the country.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The Government of India established the First Law Commission of Independent India in 1955 with the then Attorney-General of India, <strong>Mr M. C. Setalvad,</strong> as its Chairman. Since then <strong>twenty one more Law Commissions have been appointed, each with a three-year term</strong>.</li>
</ul>
<h3>The Functions of Law commission</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Law Commission, <strong>on a reference made to it by the Central Government or suo-motu,</strong> undertakes research in law and review of existing laws in India for making reforms therein and enacting new legislations. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It also undertakes studies and research for bringing reforms in the justice delivery systems for elimination of delay in procedures, speedy disposal of cases, reduction in the cost of litigation etc.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The other functions of the Law Commission include:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Review/Repeal of obsolete laws:</strong> Identification of laws which are no longer relevant and recommending for the repeal of obsolete and unnecessary enactments.</li>
<li><strong>Law and Poverty:</strong> Examines the Laws which affect the poor and carries out post-audit for socio-economic legislations.</li>
<li>Suggesting enactment of new legislation as may be necessary to <strong>implement the Directive Principles</strong> and to attain the <strong>objectives set out in the Preamble</strong> of the Constitution.</li>
<li><strong>Judicial Administration:</strong> Considering and conveying to the Government its views on any subject relating to <strong>law and judicial administration</strong> that may be specifically referred to it by the Government through the Ministry of Law and Justice (Department of Legal Affairs).</li>
<li><strong>Research:</strong> Considering the requests for providing research to any foreign countries as may be referred to it by the Government through the Ministry of Law &amp; Justice (Department of Legal Affairs).</li>
<li>Examine the existing laws with a view of promoting <strong>gender equality</strong> and suggesting amendments thereto.</li>
<li>Examine the <strong>impact of globalization</strong> on food security, unemployment and recommend measures for the protection of the interests of the marginalized.</li>
<li><strong>Preparing and submitting to the Central Government,</strong> from time to time, reports on all issues, matters, studies and research undertaken by it and recommending in such reports for effective measures to be taken by the Union or any State.</li>
<li>Performing such other functions as may be assigned to it by the Central Government from time to time.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Before concretizing its recommendations, the Commission consults the nodal Ministry/Departments and such, other stakeholders as the Commission may deem necessary for the purpose.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Reports of Law Commission</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The law commission of India has <strong>submitted 277 reports</strong> so far on various issues, some of the recent reports are:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Report No. 277 &ndash;</strong> Wrongful Prosecution (Miscarriage of Justice): Legal Remedies</li>
<li><strong>Report No. 276 &ndash;</strong> Legal Framework: Gambling and Sports Betting Including in Cricket in India</li>
<li><strong>Report No. 275</strong> &ndash; Legal Framework: BCCI vis-&agrave;-vis Right to Information Act, 2005</li>
<li><strong>Report No. 274 &ndash;</strong> Review of the Contempt of Courts Act, 1971</li>
<li><strong>Report No. 273 &ndash;</strong> Implementation of the United Nations Convention against Torture</li>
<li><strong>Report No. 272 &ndash;</strong> Assessment of Statutory Frameworks of Tribunals in India</li>
<li><strong>Report No. 271 &ndash;</strong> Human DNA Profiling</li>
<li><strong>Report No.270 &ndash;</strong>&nbsp;Compulsory Registration of Marriages</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The recommendations of the commission are <strong>not binding on the government</strong>. They may be accepted or rejected. Action on the said recommendations depends on the ministries/departments, which are concerned with the subject matter of the recommendations.</li>
</ul>
<p><em>In an era of globalisation and constantly evolving societies, Law Commission identifies the laws which are not in harmony with the existing climate, and laws which require change. It suggests suitable measures for quick redressal of citizens&rsquo; grievances, in the field of law and takes all necessary steps to make the poor benefit out of the legal process. Its presence has become even more relevant in recent times.</em></p>',
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		'category_id' => (int) 60,
		'title' => 'CITES',
		'description' => '<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) is an <strong>international agreement</strong> to which States and regional economic integration organizations adhere voluntarily.</li>
<li><strong>CITES was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963</strong> at a meeting of members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The IUCN is a membership Union uniquely composed of both government and civil society organisations.</li>
<li>It provides public, private and non-governmental organisations with the knowledge and tools that enable human progress, economic development and nature conservation to take place together.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>CITES entered into force in July 1975.</strong> Currently there are 183 Parties (include countries or regional economic integration organizations).</li>
<li><strong>Aim:</strong> Ensure that <strong>international trade</strong> in specimens of wild animals and plants does <strong>not threaten their survival.</strong></li>
<li><strong>The CITES Secretariat</strong> is administered by UNEP (The United Nations Environment Programme) and is <strong>located at Geneva, Switzerland.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It plays a coordinating, advisory and servicing role in the <strong>working of the Convention</strong> (CITES).</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The Conference of the Parties to CITES, is the <strong>supreme decision-making body</strong> of the Convention and comprises all its Parties.</li>
<li><strong>The last CoP (17<sup>th</sup>)</strong> was held at Johannesburg (South Africa), in 2016. India hosted CoP 3<sup>rd</sup> in 1981.</li>
<li>Although CITES is <strong>legally binding on the Parties,</strong> it does not take <strong>the place of national laws.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Rather, <strong>it provides a framework to be respected by each Party,</strong> which has <strong>to adopt its own domestic legislation</strong> to ensure that CITES is implemented at the national level.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Function</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The CITES works by subjecting international trade in specimens of selected species to certain controls.</li>
<li><strong>All import, export, re-export and introduction</strong> from the sea of <strong>species</strong> covered by the Convention has to be authorized <strong>through a licensing system.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Each Party</strong> to the Convention must <strong>designate</strong> one or more <strong>Management Authorities</strong> in charge of <strong>administering that licensing system</strong> and one or more <strong>Scientific Authorities to advise</strong> them on the effects of trade on the status of the species.</li>
<li><strong>Appendices I, II and III to the Convention</strong> are <strong>lists of species</strong> afforded different levels or types of <strong>protection from over-exploitation.</strong></li>
</ul>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Appendix I</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It lists species that are the <strong>most endangered</strong> among CITES-listed animals and plants.</li>
<li>Examples include <strong>gorillas, sea turtles, most lady slipper orchids, and giant pandas.</strong> Currently <strong>931 species are listed.</strong></li>
<li>They are threatened with extinction and CITES <strong>prohibits international trade</strong> in specimens of these species <strong>except when the purpose of the import is not commercial,</strong> for instance for scientific research.</li>
<li>In these exceptional cases, trade may take place provided it is authorized by the granting of both an import permit and an export permit (or re-export certificate).</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Appendix II</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It lists <strong>species</strong> that are <strong>not necessarily now threatened with extinction but that may become so unless trade is closely controlled.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Most CITES species are listed in this Appendix,</strong> including American ginseng, <strong>paddlefish, lions, American alligators, mahogany </strong>and<strong> many corals.</strong> Currently <strong>34,419 species are listed.</strong></li>
<li>It also includes so-called <strong>"look-alike species"</strong>, i.e. species whose specimens in trade look like those of species listed for conservation reasons.</li>
<li><strong>International trade</strong> in specimens of Appendix-II species may be <strong>authorized by the granting of an export permit or re-export certificate.</strong></li>
<li><strong>No import permit is necessary</strong> for these species under CITES (although a permit is needed in some countries that have taken stricter measures than CITES requires).</li>
<li>Permits or certificates should only be granted if the relevant authorities are satisfied that certain conditions are met, above all that trade will not be detrimental to the survival of the species in the wild.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Appendix III</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It is a <strong>list of species included at the request of a Party that already regulates trade</strong> in the species and that <strong>needs the cooperation of other countries</strong> to prevent unsustainable or illegal exploitation.</li>
<li>Examples include <strong>map turtles, walruses</strong> and <strong>Cape stag beetles.</strong> Currently <strong>147 species are listed.</strong></li>
<li><strong>International trade</strong> in specimens of species listed in this Appendix is <strong>allowed only on presentation of the appropriate permits or certificates.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Species may be <strong>added to or removed from Appendix I and II,</strong> or moved between them, <strong>only by the Conference of the Parties.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>However, species may be <strong>added to or removed from Appendix III at any time and by any Party unilaterally.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>CITES Contribution</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The CITES <strong>regulates international trade in close to 35,000 species</strong> of plants and animals &ndash; <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>with international commercial trade generally <strong>prohibited for 3%</strong> of these species,</li>
<li>and with international commercial trade for the <strong>remaining 97% regulated</strong> to ensure the trade is legal, sustainable and traceable.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>CITES has been at the cutting edge of the debate on the sustainable use of biodiversity for the <strong>past 42 years</strong> and it has records of over <strong>12,000,000 international trade transactions in its data-bases</strong> for that period &ndash; trade which on many occasions has <strong>benefitted local communities,</strong> such as with the vicu&ntilde;a in South America.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Appendix II of CITES permits the international trade of wool cloth, and other manufactured products (luxury and knitted handicrafts) from the <strong>shearing of live vicu&ntilde;as.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Illegal trade</strong> is estimated by it to be worth between <strong>USD 5 billion and USD 20 billion per year&ndash;</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>illegal activity that is driving many species <strong>towards extinction,</strong> and depriving local people of development choices and governments of potential revenue.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>The International Consortium on Combating Wildlife Crime</strong> (ICCWC), a consortium of the <strong>CITES Secretariat, INTERPOL</strong> (International Criminal Police Organization), the <strong>UN Office on Drugs and Crime,</strong> the <strong>World Bank</strong> and the <strong>World Customs Organization</strong> has been established <strong>to tackle illegal wildlife trade.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It brings together the entire enforcement chain to assist national enforcement authorities and regional bodies to combat illicit trade in wildlife.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>CITES and India</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India is one of the recognized <strong>mega-diverse countries</strong> of the world, harbouring nearly <strong>7-8% of the recorded species</strong> of the world, and representing <strong>4 of the 34</strong> globally identified biodiversity <strong>hotspots</strong> (Himalaya, Indo-Burma, Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, Sundaland). <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India is also a vast repository of <strong>traditional knowledge associated with biological resources.</strong> So far, over 91,200 species of animals and 45,500 species of plants have been documented in the ten biogeographic regions of the country.</li>
<li><strong>Inventories of floral and faunal diversities</strong> are being progressively updated with several new discoveries through the conduct of continuous <strong>surveys and exploration.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>India, being a CITES Party,</strong> actively <strong>prohibits the international trade of endangered wild species</strong> and several measures are in place to control threats from invasive alien species (e.g. <strong>certificates for exports, permits for imports,</strong> etc.).</li>
<li>India has proposed to <strong>remove rosewood (Dalbergia sissoo) from Appendix II</strong> of CITES. The species grows at a very fast rate and has the capacity to become naturalised outside its native range, it is invasive in other parts of the world as well. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The regulation of trade in the species is not necessary to avoid it becoming eligible for inclusion in Appendix I in the near future.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>India has also proposed to transfer <strong>small clawed otters</strong> (Aonyx cinereus), <strong>smooth coated otters</strong> (Lutrogale perspicillata), <strong>Indian Star Tortoise</strong> (Geochelone elegans) <strong>from Appendix II to Appendix I,</strong> thereby<strong> giving more protection to the species.</strong></li>
<li>The proposal also includes inclusion of <strong>Gekko gecko</strong> and <strong>Wedgefish</strong> (Rhinidae) in Appendix II of CITES. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Gekko gecko is traded highly for Chinese traditional medicine.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>',
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	(int) 15 => object(Cake\ORM\Entity) {

		'article_id' => (int) 2667,
		'category_id' => (int) 63,
		'title' => 'National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)',
		'description' => '<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) is the apex <strong>statutory body</strong> for disaster management in India.</li>
<li>The NDMA was formally constituted on <strong>27<sup>th</sup> September 2006,</strong> in accordance with the Disaster Management Act, 2005 with <strong>Prime Minister as its Chairperson</strong> and nine other members, and one such member to be designated as Vice-Chairperson.</li>
<li><strong>Mandate:</strong> Its primary purpose is to coordinate response to natural or man-made disasters and for capacity-building in disaster resiliency and crisis response. It is also the apex body to lay down policies, plans and guidelines for Disaster Management to ensure timely and effective response to disasters.</li>
<li><strong>Vision:</strong> To build a safer and disaster resilient India by a holistic, proactive, technology driven and sustainable development strategy that involves all stakeholders and fosters a culture of prevention, preparedness and mitigation.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Evolution of NDMA</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In recognition of the importance of Disaster Management as a national priority, the Government of India set up a <strong>High-Powered Committee (HPC) in August 1999 </strong>and a<strong> National Committee after the Gujarat earthquake (2001),</strong> for making recommendations on the preparation of Disaster Management plans and suggesting effective mitigation mechanisms.</li>
<li>The Tenth Five-Year Plan document also had, for the first time, a detailed chapter on Disaster Management. The Twelfth Finance Commission was also mandated to review the financial arrangements for Disaster Management.</li>
<li>On 23 December 2005, the Government of India enacted the Disaster Management Act, which envisaged the creation of NDMA, headed by the Prime Minister, and State Disaster Management Authorities (SDMAs) headed by respective Chief Ministers, to spearhead and implement a holistic and integrated approach to Disaster Management in India.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Functions and Responsibilities of NDMA</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Approve the National Disaster Plan</li>
<li>Lay down policies on disaster management</li>
<li>Approve plans prepared by Ministries or Departments of the Central Government in accordance with National Plan</li>
<li>Lay down guidelines to be followed by State Authorities in drawing up State Plan</li>
<li>Lay down guidelines to be followed by different Ministries or Departments of Central Government for purpose of integrating measures for disaster prevention or mitigation of its effects in their development plans and projects</li>
<li>Coordinate enforcement and implementation of disaster management policy and plan</li>
<li>Recommend provision of funds for the purpose of mitigation</li>
<li>Provide such support to other countries affected by major disasters as determined by Central Government</li>
<li>Take such other measures for prevention of disasters or mitigation or preparedness and capacity building for dealing with threatening disaster situation or disaster as it may consider necessary</li>
<li>Lay down broad policies and guidelines for the functioning of National Institute of Disaster Management</li>
</ul>
<h3>Institutional Framework for Disaster Management in India</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Disaster Management Act, 2005 has provided the legal and institutional framework for disaster management in India at the national, state and district levels.</li>
<li>In the federal polity of India, the primary responsibility of Disaster management vests with the state government. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The central government lays down the plans, policies and guidelines and provides technical, financial and logistical support while the district administration carries out most of the operations in collaboration with central and state level agencies.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/363image1.webp" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/363image1.webp" width="565" height="362" caption="false" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></a></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>National Executive Committee (NEC)</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>A National Executive Committee is constituted under Section 8 of DM Act, 2005 to assist the National Authority in the performance of its functions.</li>
<li>Union Home secretary is its ex-officio chairperson.</li>
<li>NEC has been given the responsibility to act as the <strong>coordinating and monitoring body for disaster management,</strong> to prepare a National Plan, monitor the implementation of National Policy etc.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>National Institute of Disaster Management (NIDM)</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>NIDM has the mandate of human resource development and capacity building for disaster management within the broad policies and guidelines laid down by the NDMA.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>National Disaster response force (NDRF)</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>NDRF is the specialized force for disaster response which works under the overall supervision and control of NDMA.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>State level Institutions</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA)</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Headed by Chief Minister</strong> of the respective state, SDMA lays down the policies and plans for disaster management in the state.</li>
<li>It is responsible to coordinate the implementation of the state Plan, recommend provision of funds for mitigation and preparedness measures and review the developmental plans of the different departments of the state to ensure integration of prevention, preparedness and mitigation measures.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>State Executive Committee (SEC)- Headed by the Chief Secretary of the state,</strong> SEC has the responsibility for coordinating and monitoring the implementation of the National Policy, the National Plan and the State Plan as provided under the DM Act.</li>
</ul>
<h3>District level Institutions</h3>
<p><strong>District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Section 25 of the DM Act provides for constitution of DDMA for every district of a state.</li>
<li><strong>The District Magistrate/ District Collector/Deputy Commissioner heads the Authority</strong> as Chairperson besides an elected representative of the local authority as Co-Chairperson except in the tribal areas where the Chief Executive Member of the District Council of Autonomous District is designated as Co-Chairperson. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Further in district, where Zila Parishad exists, its Chairperson shall be the Co-Chairperson of DDMA.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The District Authority is responsible for planning, coordination and implementation of disaster management and to take such measures for disaster management as provided in the guidelines.</li>
<li>The District Authority also has the power to examine the construction in any area in the district to enforce the safety standards and to arrange for relief measures and respond to the disaster at the district level.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Achievements of Disaster Planning in India</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/cyclone-fani-creates-four-new-mouths-in-chilika-lake" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Cyclone Fani</strong></a>, was one of the worst cyclones to hit India in last two decades. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Odisha&rsquo;s preparedness, efficient early warning system, timely action, and well-planned large-scale evacuation strategies helped 1.2 million people move safely into nearly 4,000 cyclone shelters, thereby saving the lives of vulnerable population in the sensitive coastal region.</li>
<li>The United Nations office for Disaster Risk Deduction (UNISDR) and other organizations have hailed government and volunteer efforts that have ensured the levels of destruction to keep minimum.</li>
<li>Similarly, Andhra Pradesh demonstrated an equally excellent evacuation strategy for millions during<strong> cyclone Hudhud</strong> in 2014.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>There has been significant <strong>reduction in mortality rate</strong> from the loss of over 10000 lives in 1999 during Super Cyclone in Odisha to a mortality of 16 in 2019 during cyclone Fani.</li>
<li>NDMA runs intensive earthquake and extreme weather events awareness campaigns and provides guidelines regarding natural and man-made disasters.</li>
<li>NDMA has released Guidelines on School Safety, Hospital Safety and Minimum Standards for Shelter, Food, Water, Sanitation and Medical Cover in Relief Camps. The Authority worked closely with the States in mitigating the impact of Heat Wave and the number of casualties came down drastically.</li>
<li>NDMA conducts mock exercises for better crisis management during a disaster situation.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Shortcomings and challenges</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Questions were raised about the role of NDMA during <strong>Uttarakhand Flooding in 2013,</strong> where it failed to timely inform people about the flash floods and landslides. The post disaster relief response had been equally poor. Experts blamed the <strong>poor planning of NDMA</strong> that lead to unfinished projects for flood and landslide mitigation.</li>
<li>A CAG report noted that there were <strong>delays in completion of projects under the flood management programmes.</strong> It noted the projects were not taken up in an integrated manner and blamed NDMA for institutional failures for<strong> poor flood management.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It held that there were huge <strong>delays in completion of river management activities</strong> and works related to border areas projects which were long-term solutions for the flood problems of Assam, north Bihar and eastern Uttar Pradesh.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Devastations during <strong>Kerala Floods in 2018</strong> and <strong>Chennai Floods in 2015</strong> were eye-opening for the institutions regarding preparedness for the disaster situation. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>CAG report on 2015 Chennai Floods termed it to be a &ldquo;man-made disaster&rdquo; and holds Tamil Nadu government responsible for the catastrophe.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The NDRF personnel lack sufficient training, equipment, facilities and residential accommodation to tackle the crisis situation properly.</li>
<li><strong>Misutilization of Funds-</strong> Government constituted <strong>National Disaster Response Fund</strong> and State Disaster Response Fund to deal with the disasters. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Audit findings reveal that some states have mis-utilized funds for expenditures that were not sanctioned for disaster management.</li>
<li>There was in a few cases significant delay in releasing funds. Additionally, some States didn&rsquo;t invest the funds thereby incurring huge interest losses. This shows financial indiscipline in states management of funds.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Way Forward</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Policy guidelines at the macro level are needed</strong> that would inform and guide the preparation and implementation of disaster management and development plans across sectors.</li>
<li><strong>Building in a culture of preparedness and mitigation</strong> is the need of the hour.</li>
<li>Operational guidelines should be framed for <strong>integrating disaster management practices into development,</strong> and specific developmental schemes for prevention and mitigation of disasters.</li>
<li><strong>Robust early warning systems coupled with effective response plans</strong> at district, state and national levels should be put in place.</li>
<li><strong>Community, NGOs, CSOs and the media should be involved</strong> at all stages of disaster management.</li>
<li><strong>Climate risk management should be addressed</strong> through adaptation and mitigation.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>A dynamic policy is required to develop disaster-resilient infrastructure through proper investment in research. ISRO, NRSA, IMD and other institutions have to collectively provide technological solutions to enhance capabilities to tackle disasters.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>India should <strong>learn from best global practices.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Countries such as Hong Kong, China, Japan and Korea have built a robust infrastructure over the years to effectively tackle typhoons and other disasters.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>',
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		'article_id' => (int) 2593,
		'category_id' => (int) 60,
		'title' => 'National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)',
		'description' => '<p>The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is an independent agency of the executive branch of the United States federal government responsible for the civilian space program, as well as aeronautics and aerospace research.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Established under <strong>the National Aeronautics and Space Act 1958</strong></li>
<li><strong>Headquarters:</strong> Washington, DC, USA</li>
</ul>
<h3>History</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Following World War II, the United States was in direct competition with the erstwhile Soviet Union (the superpower that was disbanded into several sovereign nations including the Russian Federation, Kazakhstan, the Ukraine, etc. in 1991). That period was called &ldquo;Cold War&rdquo;.</li>
<li>It was the Soviet Union&rsquo;s <strong>launch of Sputnik on October 4, 1957, </strong>that<strong> first put an object into orbit around Earth.</strong></li>
<li>It was followed in November by the even larger Sputnik II, which carried the <strong>dog Laika.</strong></li>
<li>Only in late January 1958, the United States could launch <strong>Explorer 1,</strong> hoisted aloft by the Army&rsquo;s rocket team, using rocket technology developed from World War II. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Though a small spacecraft weighing only 30 pounds, it discovered what are now known as the<strong> Van Allen radiation belts,</strong> named for the University of Iowa scientist Dr. James Van Allen,<strong> launching the new discipline of space science.</strong></li>
<li>Explorer 1 was followed in March, 1958 by the Navy&rsquo;s <strong>Vanguard</strong> 1, 6 inches in diameter and weighing only 3 pounds.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>NASA&rsquo;s birth was directly related to the launch of the Sputniks and the ensuing race <strong>to demonstrate technological superiority in space.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Driven by the competition of the Cold War,</strong> on <strong>July 29, 1958,</strong> President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the <strong>National Aeronautics and Space Act</strong>, providing for research into the problems of flight within Earth&rsquo;s atmosphere and in space.</li>
<li>After a protracted debate over <strong>military versus civilian control of space,</strong> the act inaugurated a new <strong>civilian agency designated</strong> the National Aeronautics and Space Administration <strong>(NASA).</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>Objectives of NASA</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>To expand human knowledge of space</li>
<li>To lead the world in space-related technological innovation</li>
<li>To develop vehicles that can carry both equipment and living organisms into space</li>
<li>To coordinate with international space agencies to achieve the greatest possible scientific advancements.</li>
</ul>
<h3>NASA Missions</h3>
<p>Over the last 60 years, the NASA has achieved every one of the aforesaid goals through various missions some of which are given below, and it continues to seek answers to some of the biggest mysteries in science as it evolves with a changing world.</p>
<table border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%; height: 3143px;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #0a65f7;"><span style="color: #ffffff;"><strong>Mission</strong></span></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #0a65f7;"><span style="color: #ffffff;"><strong>Detail</strong></span></td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Advanced Composition Explorer (ACE) Launched: 1997</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Observes particles of solar, interplanetary, interstellar, and galactic origins, spanning the energy range from solar wind ions to galactic cosmic ray nuclei.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<p><strong>The Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere</strong></p>
<p><strong>satellite (AIM) Launched: 2007</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Strange Clouds-</strong> Astronauts on board the International Space Station have been observing electric blue "noctilucent" clouds from Earth-orbit.</li>
<li>Noctilucent or "night-shining" clouds (NLCs) are also known as Polar Mesospheric Clouds (PMC).</li>
<li>The AIM satellite will orbit Earth at an altitude of 550 km.</li>
<li>AIM will take wide angle photos of NLCs, measure their temperatures and chemical abundances, monitor dusty aerosols, and count meteoroids raining down on Earth.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 56px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 56px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>The Apollo Missions Launched: 1968</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 56px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It resulted in American astronauts making a total of 11 space flights and walking on the moon.</li>
<li>The first Apollo flight happened in 1968. The first moon landing took place in 1969. The last moon landing was in 1972.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 61px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 61px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Apollo-Soyuz: An Orbital Partnership Begins Launched: 1975</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 61px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Apollo-Soyuz Test Project was the <strong>first spaceflight to include two participating nations working together</strong> with their own national spacecraft.</li>
<li>The Americans sent up an Apollo command module, while the Russians launched a Soyuz spacecraft.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 54px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 54px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Aqua Launched: 2002</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 54px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Aqua is an Earth Science satellite mission that collects information on our water systems.</li>
<li>The satellite has six different Earth-observing instruments on board and streams approximately 89 gigabytes of data per day.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 145px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 145px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Aquarius Mission Operation: 2011 to 2015</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 145px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The joint U.S./Argentinian Aquarius /Sat&eacute;lite de Aplicaciones Cient&iacute;ficas (SAC)-D mission was launched June 10, 2011, and ended on June 8, 2015, when an essential part of the power and attitude control system for the spacecraft stopped operating.</li>
<li>Aquarius/SAC-D <strong>mapped the salinity (the concentration of dissolved salt) at the ocean surface,</strong> information critical to improving our understanding of two major components of Earth's climate system: <strong>the water cycle and ocean circulation.</strong></li>
<li>By measuring ocean salinity from space, Aquarius provided new insights into how the massive natural exchange of freshwater between the ocean, atmosphere and sea ice influences ocean circulation, weather and climate.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 111px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 111px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Arctic Research of the Composition of the Troposphere from Aircraft and Satellites (ARCTAS) Operated: March 2, 2008 to April 20, 2008</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 111px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Arctic is undergoing significant environmental changes related to global climate change.</li>
<li>NASA is extensively <strong>studying the role of air pollution in this climate-sensitive</strong> region as part of the ARCTAS field campaign, the <strong>largest airborne experiment</strong> ever to do so.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 120px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 120px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Artemis Lunar Program Launched: May 2019</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 120px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Artemis program, unveiled by NASA, aims to put astronauts on the lunar surface in 2024 &mdash; and give us <strong>the first female moonwalker.</strong></li>
<li>The initiative comes as the nation prepares to celebrate the 50th anniversary of the Apollo 11 landing in 1969, which made Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin the first people to set foot on another world.</li>
<li>The Greek god who became the namesake of NASA's Apollo program in the 1960s and &rsquo;70s had a twin sister named <strong>Artemis,</strong> will lead humans back to the moon.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 122px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 122px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Airborne Tropical TRopopause EXperiment (ATTREX) Launched: 2014</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 122px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Despite its low concentration, <strong>stratospheric water vapor</strong> has large impacts on the earth&rsquo;s energy budget and climate.</li>
<li>Recent studies suggest that even small changes in stratospheric humidity may have climate impacts that are significant compared to those of decadal increases in greenhouse gases.</li>
<li>The ATTREX will perform a series of measurement campaigns using the long-range NASA Global Hawk (GH) unmanned aircraft system (UAS) to directly address these problems.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 60px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 60px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Aura - Understanding and Protecting the Air We Breathe Launched: 2004</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 60px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Aura (Latin for breeze) is a program dedicated to monitoring the complex interactions that affect the globe using NASA satellites and data systems.</li>
<li>Aura's measurements will enable to <strong>investigate questions about ozone trends, air quality changes and their linkage to climate change.</strong></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 79px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 79px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>BARREL (Balloon Array for Radiation-belt Relativistic Electron Losses- 2013 and 2014)</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 79px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It is a balloon-based Mission that <strong>seeks to measure the precipitation of relativistic electrons from the radiation belts</strong> during two multi-balloon campaigns, operated in the southern hemisphere (option for third northern hemisphere campaign).</li>
<li>The BARREL consists of two Antarctic balloon campaigns conducted in Austral summers of 2013 and 2014.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 72px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 72px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>CALIPSO (The Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observation): 2006</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 72px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The CALIPSO satellite provides <strong>new insight into the role that clouds and atmospheric aerosols (airborne particles) play in regulating Earth's weather, climate, and air quality.</strong></li>
<li>It was launched on April 28, 2006 with the cloud profiling radar system on the CloudSat satellite.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 145px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 145px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Cassini-Huygens Operation: 1997 to 2017</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 145px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The <strong>Cassini mission to Saturn</strong> is one of the most ambitious efforts in planetary space exploration ever mounted.</li>
<li>A joint endeavor of NASA, the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Italian space agency, Agenzia Spaziale Italiana (ASI), Cassini is a sophisticated robotic spacecraft orbiting the ringed planet and studying the Saturnian system in detail.</li>
<li>Cassini also carried a probe called <strong>Huygens, which parachuted to the surface of Saturn&rsquo;s largest moon, Titan,</strong> in January 2005 and returned spectacular results.</li>
<li>It entered Saturn's atmosphere on Sept. 15, 2017 and lost communication with NASA.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 143px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 143px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Chandra X-Ray Observatory Launched: By Space Shuttle Columbia in 1999.</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 143px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Chandra X-ray Observatory is part of NASA's ﬂeet of "Great Observatories" along with the Hubble Space Telescope, Spitzer Space Telescope and the now deorbited Compton Gamma Ray Observatory.</li>
<li>Chandra allows scientists from around the world to obtain X-ray images of exotic environments to <strong>help understand the structure and evolution of the universe.</strong></li>
<li>It was named in honor of the late Indian-American Nobel Laureate, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar. Known to the world as Chandra (which means "moon" or "luminous" in Sanskrit), he was widely regarded as one of the foremost astrophysicists of the twentieth century.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 126px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 126px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>CINDI: Coupled Ion Neutral Dynamic Investigation Operation: The C/NOFS satellite, which carried NASA's CINDI investigation was launched in 2008 and ended in 2015</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 126px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The CINDI <strong>studied the elements that influence space weather near Earth&rsquo;s equator.</strong></li>
<li>The CINDI investigation is a key component of the science objectives of the Communication/Navigation Outage Forecast System (C/NOFS) undertaken by the Air Force Research Laboratory and the Space and Missile Command Test and Evaluation Directorate.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 74px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 74px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Clementine Operation: January 25, 1994 to 21 July 1994</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 74px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Clementine was a joint project between the U.S. Ballistic Missile Defense Organization and NASA.</li>
<li>It was designed to test sensors and spacecraft components under extended exposure to the space environment and to make scientific observations of the Moon and the near-Earth <strong>asteroid 1620 Geographos.</strong></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 67px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 67px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Cloud-Aerosol Transport System (CATS) Operation: 2015 to 2017</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 67px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The CATS, is a lidar remote-sensing instrument that <strong>measured atmospheric aerosols and clouds</strong> from the International Space Station (ISS).</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>CloudSat: 2006</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The CloudSat is an experimental satellite that <strong>uses radar to observe clouds and precipitation from space.</strong></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 67px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 67px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Cluster ESA (European Space Agency)/NASA Mission: 1996</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 67px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Cluster is currently <strong>investigating the Earth's magnetic environment and its interaction with the solar wind</strong> in three dimensions.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 51px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 51px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Commercial Crew</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 51px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>NASA's Commercial Crew Program is a <strong>partnership to develop and fly human space transportation systems.</strong></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 72px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 72px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>The CGRO Mission (1991 - 2000)</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 72px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Compton Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO) was a sophisticated satellite <strong>observatory dedicated to observing the high-energy Universe.</strong></li>
<li>Compton, at 17 tons, was the heaviest astrophysical payload ever flown at the time of its launch on April 5, 1991 aboard the space shuttle Atlantis.</li>
<li>Compton was safely deorbited and re-entered the Earth's atmosphere on June 4, 2000.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 83px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 83px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>COBE</strong><br /><strong>Operation: 1989 to 1993</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 83px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The purpose of the Cosmic Background Explorer (COBE) mission was to take <strong>precise measurements of the diffuse radiation between 1 micrometer and 1 cm over the whole celestial sphere.</strong></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Cosmic Hot Interstellar Plasma Spectrometer (CHIPS)</strong><br /><strong>Launched: 2003</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The CHIPS is a NASA astrophysics spacecraft that <strong>targets the hot and diffuse nebulae</strong> at about a million degrees temperature.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 81px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 81px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>CubeSats</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 81px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>CubeSats are a class of research spacecraft called <strong>nanosatellites.</strong></li>
<li>CubeSats are built to standard dimensions (Units or &ldquo;U&rdquo;) of 10 cm x 10 cm x 10 cm.</li>
<li>They can be 1U, 2U, 3U, or 6U in size, and typically weigh less than 1.33 kg (3 lbs) per U.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 79px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 79px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Curiosity: 2011</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 79px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A rover named Curiosity is part of NASA's <strong>Mars Exploration Program,</strong> a long-term effort of robotic exploration of the red planet.</li>
<li>Curiosity was designed to assess whether Mars ever had an environment able to support small life forms called microbes.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In other words, its mission is to determine the planet's "habitability."</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 83px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 83px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Cyclone Global Navigation Satellite System (CYGNSS)</strong><br /><strong>Launched: 2016</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 83px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The CYGNSS mission will <strong>use eight micro-satellites to measure wind speeds over Earth's oceans, increasing the ability of scientists to understand and predict hurricanes.</strong></li>
<li>Each satellite will take information based on the signals from four GPS satellites.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 67px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 67px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Double Asteroid Redirection Test (DART) Mission</strong><br /><strong>Launching: 2021</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 67px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The DART is a <strong>planetary defense-driven test</strong> of technologies for preventing an impact of Earth by a hazardous asteroid.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 124px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 124px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>The Dawn</strong><br /><strong>Operation: 2007 to 2018</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 124px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Dawn was a mission <strong>to the two most massive bodies in the main asteroid belt &ndash; Vesta and Ceres.</strong></li>
<li>Vesta is rocky, while dwarf planet Ceres is icy.</li>
<li>Each followed a very different evolutionary path, constrained by the diversity of processes that operated during the first few million years of the solar system.</li>
<li>When Dawn visited Ceres and Vesta, the spacecraft brought us back in solar system time.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 79px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 79px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Earth Radiation Budget Satellite (ERBS)</strong><br /><strong>Operation: 1984 to 2005</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 79px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The ERBS was designed to <strong>investigate how energy from the Sun is absorbed and re-radiated by the Earth.</strong></li>
<li>Understanding this process helps reveal patterns in Earth's weather.<br />It was launched on the Space Shuttle Challenger.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 143px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 143px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<p><strong>Ecosystem Spaceborne Thermal Radiometer Experiment on Space Station (ECOSTRESS)</strong><br /><strong>Launched: 2018</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 143px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The ECOSTRESS <strong>measures the temperature of plants</strong> and use that information to better understand how much water plants need and how they respond to stress.</li>
<li>It uses a multispectral thermal infrared radiometer to measure the surface temperature.</li>
<li>The radiometer was deployed on the International Space Station in 2018.<br />The radiometer will acquire the most detailed temperature images of the surface ever acquired from space and will be able to measure the temperature of an individual farmers field.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 68px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 68px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<p><strong>FAST (the Fast Auroral Snapshot Explorer)</strong><br /><strong>Operation: 1996 to 2009</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 68px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The FAST <strong>investigated the behavior of ionized gas, called plasma, and particles during auroras.</strong></li>
<li>As the FAST flew over the poles&mdash;the most common regions where auroras form&mdash;it took quick, high-resolution bursts of data on particles, electric and magnetic fields, and plasma.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 70px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 70px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<p><strong>Galileo</strong><br /><strong>Operation: 1989 to 2003</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 70px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Galileo spacecraft <strong>orbited Jupiter</strong> for almost eight years, and made close passes by all its major moons.</li>
<li>Its camera and nine other instruments sent back reports that allowed scientists to determine, among other things, that <strong>Jupiter&rsquo;s icy moon Europa</strong> probably has a subsurface ocean with more water than the total amount found on Earth.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 116px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 116px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<p><strong>Hubble Space Telescope</strong><br /><strong>Launched: 1990</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 116px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The NASA named the <strong>world's first space-based optical telescope</strong> after American astronomer Edwin P. Hubble (1889-1953). <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Dr. Hubble confirmed an "expanding" universe, which provided the foundation for the big-bang theory.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The Hubble is the first major optical telescope to be placed in space, the ultimate mountaintop. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Above the distortion of the atmosphere, far far above rain clouds and light pollution, Hubble has an unobstructed view of the universe.</li>
<li>Scientists have used Hubble to observe the most distant stars and galaxies as well as the planets in our solar system.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 99px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 99px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<p><strong>IceBridge Mission</strong><br /><strong>Launched: 2009</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 99px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The IceBridge is the <strong>largest airborne survey of Earth's polar ice</strong> ever flown.</li>
<li>It yields an unprecedented three-dimensional view of Arctic and Antarctic ice sheets, ice shelves and sea ice.</li>
<li>Data collected during IceBridge will help scientists bridge the gap in polar observations between NASA's Ice, Cloud and Land Elevation Satellite (ICESat) - launched in 2003 and de-orbited in 2010 and ICESat-2, launched in 2018.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<p><strong>International Space Station (IIS)</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The ISS is a <strong>multi-nation construction project</strong> that is the largest single structure humans ever put into space.</li>
<li>Its main construction was completed between 1998 and 2011, although the station continually evolves to include new missions and experiments.</li>
<li>The NASA , Roscosmos (Russia) and the European Space Agency are the major partners of the space station.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 78px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 78px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<p><strong>The James Webb Space Telescope</strong><br /><strong>Launching: 2021</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 78px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The James Webb Space Telescope (sometimes called JWST or Webb) will be a<strong> large infrared telescope</strong> with a 6.5-meter primary mirror.</li>
<li>The telescope will be launched on an Ariane 5 rocket from French Guiana in 2021.</li>
<li><strong>It will find the first galaxies that formed in the early universe</strong> and peer through dusty clouds to see stars forming planetary systems.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 43px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 43px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Mars 2020 Rover</strong><br /><strong>Launching: 2020</strong>
<p></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 43px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The rover will<strong> search for signs of habitable conditions on Mars</strong> in the ancient past and for signs of past microbial life itself.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 97px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 97px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;"><strong>Orion spacecraft: Underdevelopment</strong></td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 97px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Orion is a new NASA spacecraft for astronauts.</li>
<li>The spacecraft will play an important part in the journey to Mars.</li>
<li>Orion will serve as the <strong>exploration vehicle that will carry the crew to space, provide emergency abort capability, sustain the crew during the space travel, and provide safe re-entry from deep space return velocities.</strong></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 75px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 75px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<p><strong>PACE (Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem) Launching: 2022</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 75px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The PACE is NASA's <strong>Plankton, Aerosol, Cloud, ocean Ecosystem mission,</strong> currently in the design phase of mission development.</li>
<li>It will extend and improve NASA's over 20-year record of satellite observations of global ocean biology, aerosols (tiny particles suspended in the atmosphere), and clouds.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 17.9682%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<p><strong>Rosetta</strong><br /><strong>Operation: 2004 to 2016</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 81.956%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; background-color: #d7e8fa;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Rosetta was a spacecraft on a ten-year mission<strong> to catch the comet "67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko" (C-G)</strong> and answer some of our questions about comets.</li>
<li>This was a European Space Agency mission with support and instruments from NASA.</li>
<li>Rosetta was the first spacecraft to soft-land a robot on a comet.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
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		'article_id' => (int) 2538,
		'category_id' => (int) 63,
		'title' => 'APEDA & TRIFED',
		'description' => '<h2 style="text-align: center;">APEDA</h2>
<h3>Introduction</h3>
<p>The Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority (APEDA) was established by the Government of India under the <strong>Agricultural and Processed Food Products Export Development Authority Act, 1985.</strong> It functions under the <strong>Ministry of Commerce and Industry.</strong> The Authority has its headquarters in New Delhi.</p>
<h3>Functions</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>APEDA is mandated with the responsibility of <strong>export promotion and development of the scheduled products</strong> viz. fruits, vegetables and their products; meat and meat products; poultry and poultry products; dairy products; confectionery, biscuits and bakery products; honey, jaggery and sugar products; cocoa and its products, chocolates of all kinds; alcoholic and non-alcoholic beverages; cereal and cereal products; groundnuts, peanuts and walnuts, pickles, papads and chutneys; guar gum; floriculture and floriculture products; herbal and medicinal plants.</li>
<li>APEDA has been entrusted with the responsibility to <strong>monitor import of sugar.</strong></li>
<li>It looks after the development of industries relating to the scheduled products for export by way of providing financial assistance or otherwise for undertaking surveys and feasibility studies, participating through subsidy schemes.</li>
<li>Registration of persons as exporters of the scheduled products and fixing of standards and specifications for the scheduled products for the purpose of exports.</li>
<li>Carrying out inspection of meat and meat products in slaughterhouses, processing plants, storage premises and improving packaging of the scheduled products.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Composition of APEDA Authority</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The APEDA Authority consists of the following members namely:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>A Chairman appointed by the Central Government</li>
<li>The Agricultural Marketing Advisor to the Government of India, ex-official</li>
<li>Three members of Parliament of whom two are elected by the House of People and one by the Council of States</li>
<li>Eight members appointed by the Central Government representing respectively; the Ministries of the Central Govt.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Agriculture and Rural Development</li>
<li>Commerce</li>
<li>Finance</li>
<li>Industry</li>
<li>Food</li>
<li>Civil Supplies</li>
<li>Civil Aviation</li>
<li>Shipping and transport</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p>Five members appointed by the Central Government by rotation in alphabetical order to represent the States and the Union Territories</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Seven members appointed by the Central Govt. representing
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Indian Council of Agricultural Research</li>
<li>National Horticultural Board</li>
<li>National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation</li>
<li>Central Food Technological Research Institute</li>
<li>Indian Institute of Packaging</li>
<li>Spices Export Promotion Council and</li>
<li>Cashew Export Promotion Council</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Twelve members appointed by the Central Government representing
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Fruit and Vegetable Products Industries</li>
<li>Meat, Poultry and Dairy Products Industries</li>
<li>Other Scheduled Products Industries</li>
<li>Packaging Industry</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Two members appointed by the Central Government from amongst specialists and scientists in the fields of agriculture, economics and marketing of the scheduled products.&nbsp;</li>
</ul>
<h2 style="text-align: center;">TRIFED</h2>
<h3>Introduction</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation of India (TRIFED) came into existence in 1987. It is a national-level apex organization functioning under the administrative control of Ministry of Tribal Affairs.</li>
<li>TRIFED has its Head Office located in New Delhi and has a network of 13 Regional Offices located at various places in the country.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Objectives</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The ultimate objective of TRIFED is socio-economic development of tribal people in the country by way of marketing development of the tribal products such as metal craft, tribal textiles, pottery, tribal paintings and pottery on which the tribals depends heavily for major portion of their income.</li>
<li>TRIFED acts as a facilitator and service provider for tribes to sell their product.</li>
<li>The approach by TRIFED aims to empower tribal people with knowledge, tools and pool of information so that they can undertake their operations in a more systematic and scientific manner.</li>
<li>It also involves capacity building of the tribal people through sensitization, formation of Self Help Groups (SHGs) and imparting training to them for undertaking a particular activity.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Functions</h3>
<p>It mainly undertakes two functions viz. Minor Forest Produce (MFP) development and Retail Marketing and Development.</p>
<p><strong>Minor Forest Produce (MFP) development</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>An important source of livelihood for tribal people are non-wood forest products, generally termed 'Minor Forest Produce (MFP)'. This includes all non-timber forest produce of plant origin and include bamboo, canes, fodder, leaves, gums, waxes, dyes, resins and many forms of food including nuts, wild fruits, honey, lac, tusser etc.</li>
<li>The Minor Forest Produces provide both subsistence and cash income for people who live in or near forests. They form a major portion of their food, fruits, medicines and other consumption items and also provide cash income through sales.</li>
<li>MFP has significant economic and social value for the forest dwellers as an estimated 100 Million people derive their source of livelihood from the collection and marketing of Minor Forest Produce (Report of the National Committee on Forest Rights Act, 2011).</li>
<li>Around 100 million forest dwellers depend on Minor Forest Produces for food, shelter, medicines and cash income. Tribals derive 20-40% of their annual income from Minor Forest Produce on which they spend major portion of their time.</li>
<li>MFP also has strong linkage to women&rsquo;s financial empowerment as most of the Minor Forest Produces are collected and used/sold by women.</li>
<li>The people who depend on MFP are generally beset with a number of other problems such as perishable nature of the produce, lack of holding capacity, lack of marketing infrastructure, exploitation by middlemen, etc. Due to this, the MFP gatherers who are mostly poor are unable to bargain for fair prices.</li>
<li>To cope with the above problem, Govt. of India has decided to introduce the scheme of &ldquo;Mechanism for Marketing of Minor Forest Produce (MFP) through Minimum Support Price (MSP) and development of value chain&rdquo;.</li>
<li>The scheme is designed as a social safety net for improvement of livelihood of MFP gatherers by providing them a fair price for the MFPs they collect.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Retail Marketing and Development</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>TRIFED aims to improve the livelihood of the tribal communities by creating a sustainable market and create business opportunities for tribal people.</li>
<li>It involves exploring marketing possibilities for marketing of tribal products on a sustainable basis, creating brand and providing other necessary services.</li>
<li>It has a network of 13 regional offices across the country which identifies and source tribal products for marketing through its retail marketing network of TRIBES INDIA outlets.</li>
<li>It has been undertaking sourcing of various handicraft, handloom and natural &amp; food products through its empanelled suppliers across the country. The suppliers comprise of individual tribal artisans, tribal SHGs, Organisations/ Agencies/NGOs working with tribals. The suppliers are empanelled with TRIFED as per the guidelines for empanelment of suppliers.</li>
<li>TRIFED has been marketing tribal products through its Retail Outlets located across the country and also through exhibitions. It has established a chain of 35 own showrooms and 8 consignment showrooms in association with State level Organisations promoting tribal handicrafts.</li>
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		'article_id' => (int) 2451,
		'category_id' => (int) 60,
		'title' => 'World Health Organization (WHO)',
		'description' => '<p>World Health Organization (WHO), the United Nations&rsquo; specialized agency for Health was founded in 1948.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Its <strong>headquarters</strong> are situated in <strong>Geneva, Switzerland.</strong></li>
<li>There are 194 Member States, 150 country offices, six regional offices.</li>
<li>It is an inter-governmental organization and works in collaboration with its member states usually through the Ministries of Health.</li>
<li>The WHO provides leadership on global health matters, shaping the health research agenda, setting norms and standards, articulating evidence-based policy options, providing technical support to countries and monitoring and assessing health trends.</li>
</ul>
<p>It began functioning on <strong>April 7,</strong> 1948 &ndash; a date now being celebrated every year as <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/important-facts-for-prelims-8th-april-2019" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>World Health Day</strong></a>.</p>
<h3>Objectives</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>To act as the <strong>directing and coordinating authority on international health work.</strong></li>
<li><strong>To establish and maintain effective collaboration with the United Nations,</strong> specialized agencies, governmental health administrations, professional groups and such other organizations as may be deemed appropriate.</li>
<li>To <strong>provide assistance</strong> to the Governments, upon request, <strong>in strengthening health services.</strong></li>
<li>To <strong>promote cooperation among scientific and professional groups</strong> which contribute to the advancement of health.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Governance</h3>
<p><strong>World Health Assembly</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Health Assembly is composed of delegates representing Members.</li>
<li>Each Member is represented by not more than three delegates, one of whom is designated by the Member as chief delegate.</li>
<li>These delegates are chosen from among persons most qualified by their technical competence in the field of health, preferably representing the national health administration of the Member.</li>
<li>The Health Assembly meets in regular annual session and sometimes in special sessions as well.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Functions</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Health Assembly determines the policies of the Organization.</li>
<li>It supervises the financial policies of the Organization and reviews and approves the budget.</li>
<li>It reports to the <strong>Economic and Social Council</strong> in accordance with any agreement between the Organization and the United Nations.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>The Secretariat</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Secretariat comprises of the Director-General and such technical and administrative staff as the Organization may require.</li>
<li>The Director-General is appointed by the Health Assembly on the nomination of the Board on such terms as the Health Assembly may determine.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Membership and Associate Membership</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Members of the United Nations may become Members of the Organization.</li>
<li>Territories or groups of territories which are not responsible for the conduct of their international relations may be admitted as Associate Members by the Health Assembly.</li>
</ul>
<h3>WHO&rsquo;s Contribution to World</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>The country offices are WHO&rsquo;s primary contact points with governments.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>They provide technical support on health matters, share relevant global standards and guidelines, and relay government requests and requirements to other levels of WHO.</li>
<li>They also inform and follow up with the host government on reports of disease outbreaks outside the country.</li>
<li>They provide advice and guidance on public health to other UN agency offices in-country.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>In addition to governments, WHO also coordinates with other UN agencies, donors, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and the private sector.</li>
<li>The benefits of WHO's international health work are reaped by all countries, including the most developed.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>For example, all nations have benefited from their contributions to the WHO programs that led to the global eradication of smallpox and to promote better and cheaper ways of controlling tuberculosis.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The organization believes that <strong>immunization, which prevents the six major communicable diseases of childhood&mdash;diphtheria, measles, poliomyelitis, tetanus, tuberculosis, and whooping cough&mdash;</strong>should be available to all children who need it.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>WHO is leading a worldwide campaign to provide effective immunization for all children in cooperation with the United Nations Children&rsquo;s Fund (UNICEF).</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>During the first decade (1948-58),</strong> the WHO focused <strong>major attention on specific infectious diseases</strong> afflicting millions of people in the developing countries.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>These included malaria, yaws, tuberculosis, and venereal diseases.</li>
<li>There was also a high priority for maternal and child health services, for environmental sanitation (especially safe water), and for standardization of drugs and vaccines.</li>
<li>In these years, WHO developed close working relationships with other UN agencies.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>The period (1958 to 68)</strong> was much <strong>influenced by the national liberation in Africa</strong> of several former colonies, which became voting members of the Organization.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In 1960, the departure from the newly independent Democratic Republic of the Congo of nearly all foreign doctors created a massive emergency.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Working with the international Red Cross, WHO recruited 200 physicians and other health workers, and established a new fellowship program to enable scores of Congolese &ldquo;medical assistants&rdquo; to become fully qualified doctors.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>In this period, fellowships for health-personnel development became a major WHO strategy in almost all countries.</li>
<li>WHO stimulated and <strong>even collaborated with the world chemical industry in the 1960s</strong> to develop new insecticides for fighting the vectors of onchocerciasis (&ldquo;river blindness&rdquo;) and for treating schistosomiasis.</li>
<li>Demonstration that tuberculosis could be effectively treated, without expensive sanatorium care, was a great breakthrough of the late 1950s.</li>
<li>Even the mundane standardization of the nomenclature of diseases and causes of death was an important contribution of WHO to international health communications.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The <strong>third decade (1968&ndash;78) of WHO included the great victory of eradicating smallpox</strong> from the earth.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In 1967, smallpox was still endemic in thirty-one countries, afflicting between 10 and 15 million people.</li>
<li>The work was done by teams of public health workers in all the countries affected, with WHO serving as leader, co-ordinator, and inspiration.</li>
<li>Millions of dollars were saved worldwide by this achievement, which overcame various national rivalries and suspicions.</li>
<li>The momentum of this great campaign added strength to another drive, for expanding the immunization of the world&rsquo;s children against six once-ravaging diseases: diphtheria, tetanus, whooping cough, measles, poliomyelitis, and tuberculosis (with BCG vaccine).</li>
<li>After long hesitation for political reasons, in this period WHO finally entered the field of<strong> family planning by promoting worldwide research and development on human reproduction.</strong></li>
<li>New efforts were also put into the control of malaria and leprosy.</li>
<li>WHO also promoted the training of auxiliary health personnel, such as <strong>China&rsquo;s &ldquo;barefoot doctors&rdquo; and India&rsquo;s traditional birth-attendants.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Such training was a sounder investment in most developing countries than preparing physicians for predominantly urban medical practice.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>The fourth decade (1978&ndash;88)</strong> was ushered in by <strong>a great world conference of WHO and UNICEF in Alma Ata,</strong> a city of the Asiatic part of the Soviet Union.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In reaction against excessive attention to high-technology, the <strong>Alma Ata conference emphasized the great importance of primary health care, preventive and curative, as the best approach to national health policy.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>This approach, <strong>stressing community participation, appropriate technology, and intersectoral collaboration,</strong> became the central pillar of world health policy.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Thirty years after its birth, 134 WHO member-states reaffirmed their commitment to equality, as embodied in the slogan <strong>&ldquo;Health for All.&rdquo;</strong></li>
<li>The provisions of the safe drinking water and adequate excreta disposal for all were the objectives of the <strong>International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade (1981-90)</strong> proclaimed by the UN General Assembly in 1980 and supported by WHO.</li>
<li>In this period, every country was encouraged to develop a list of &ldquo;essential drugs&rdquo; for use in all public facilities, instead of the thousands of brand-name products sold in world markets.</li>
<li>The WHO&rsquo;s condemnation of the promotion of <strong>artificial infant-formula products</strong> in developing countries also attracted widespread attention.</li>
<li>The worldwide control of<strong> infantile diarrhea with oral rehydration therapy</strong> was another great advance, based on very simple principles.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Networks:</strong> A 1995 outbreak of Ebola virus in the Congo, which raged for three months unbeknownst to WHO, revealed a startling <strong>lack of global public health surveillance and notification systems.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>So in 1997, WHO (in collaboration with Canada) rolled out the Global Public Health Intelligence Network (GPHIN), which took advantage of information on the Internet to function as an early warning system for potential epidemics.</strong></li>
<li>The WHO supplemented this (GPHIN) in 2000 with the <strong>Global Outbreak Alert Response Network (GOARN) to analyze events once they were detected.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>GOARN linked 120 networks and institutes with the data, laboratories, skills and experience to take action swiftly in a crisis.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>According to the WHO, most of the estimated <strong>500000 maternal deaths each year are preventable through family planning</strong>&mdash;to avoid illegal abortions&mdash;and hygienic education of traditional birth-attendants.</li>
<li>The WHO has also mounted increasing <strong>efforts against cancer,</strong> which now takes as many lives in the developing countries as in the affluent ones.</li>
<li>The fight against <strong>tobacco,</strong> the largest single cause of preventable death in both men and women, is part of WHO effort in every country.</li>
<li>Disseminating the simple rules of diet, exercise, nonsmoking, prudent use of alcohol, and hygienic working conditions are <strong>major objectives of health education</strong> in WHO everywhere.</li>
<li>The worldwide epidemic of AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) has presented another challenge to WHO in mounting global efforts to stem the spread of this lethal sexually transmitted virus disease.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>The WHO is working for the introduction of self-testing</strong> so that more people living with HIV know their status and can receive treatment.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>WHO and India</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India became a party to the WHO on 12 January 1948.</li>
<li>Regional office for South East Asia is located in New Delhi.</li>
<li>Smallpox
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In 1967 the total number of smallpox cases recorded in India accounted for nearly 65% of all cases in the world. Of this 26,225 cases died, giving a grim picture of the relentless fight that lay ahead.</li>
<li><strong>In 1967, the WHO launched the Intensified Smallpox Eradication Programme.</strong></li>
<li>With a coordinated effort by Indian government with the World Health Organization (WHO), smallpox was eradicated in 1977.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Polio</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India began the battle against the disease in response to the <strong>WHO&rsquo;s 1988 Global Polio Eradication Initiative</strong> with financial and technical help from World Bank.</li>
<li><strong>Polio Campaign-2012:</strong> The Indian Government, in partnership with UNICEF, the World Health Organization (WHO), the Bill &amp; Melinda Gates Foundation, Rotary International and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention contributed to almost universal awareness of the need to vaccinate all children under five against polio.</li>
<li>As a result of these efforts, India was removed from the list of endemic countries in 2014.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>It has also been instrumental in the country&rsquo;s transition from hospital-based to community-based care and the resultant increase in health posts and centres focusing on primary care.</li>
<li><strong>The WHO Country Cooperation Strategy &ndash; India (2012-2017)</strong> has been jointly developed by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare (MoH&amp;FW) and the WHO Country Office for India (WCO).</li>
</ul>
<h3>World Health Concerns &amp; WHO</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Air pollution and Climate Change</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Nine out of ten people breathe polluted air every day. In 2019, air pollution is considered by the WHO as the <strong>greatest environmental risk to health.</strong></li>
<li>Microscopic pollutants in the air can penetrate respiratory and circulatory systems, damaging the lungs, heart and brain, killing 7 million people prematurely every year from diseases such as cancer, stroke, heart and lung disease.</li>
<li>The primary cause of air pollution (burning fossil fuels) is also a major contributor to climate change, which impacts people&rsquo;s health in different ways.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Between 2030 and 2050, climate change is expected to cause 250 000 additional deaths per year, from malnutrition, malaria, diarrhoea and heat stress.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Noncommunicable Diseases</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Noncommunicable diseases, such as diabetes, cancer and heart disease, are collectively responsible for over 70% of all deaths worldwide, or 41 million people.</li>
<li>The rise of these diseases has been driven by <strong>five major risk factors: tobacco use, physical inactivity, the harmful use of alcohol, unhealthy diets and air pollution.</strong></li>
<li>These risk factors also exacerbate <strong>mental health issues.</strong> The <strong>suicide</strong> is the second leading cause of death among 15-19 year-olds.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Global Influenza Pandemic</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The WHO is constantly monitoring the circulation of influenza viruses to detect potential pandemic strains: 153 institutions in 114 countries are involved in global surveillance and response.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Fragile and Vulnerable Settings</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>More than 1.6 billion people (22% of the global population) live in places where protracted crises (through a combination of challenges such as drought, famine, conflict, and population displacement) and weak health services leave them without access to basic care.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Antimicrobial Resistance</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It is the ability of bacteria, parasites, viruses and fungi to resist modern medicines which threatens to send us back to a time when we were unable to easily treat infections such as pneumonia, tuberculosis, gonorrhoea, and salmonellosis.</li>
<li>The inability to prevent infections could seriously compromise surgery and procedures such as chemotherapy.</li>
<li>In 2017, around 600 000 cases of tuberculosis were resistant to rifampicin &ndash; the most effective first-line drugs &ndash; and 82% of these people had multidrug-resistant tuberculosis.</li>
<li><strong>Drug resistance</strong> is driven by the overuse of antimicrobials in people, but also in animals, especially those used for food production, as well as in the environment.</li>
<li>WHO is working with these sectors to implement a global action plan to tackle antimicrobial resistance by increasing awareness and knowledge, reducing infection, and encouraging prudent use of antimicrobials.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Ebola and Other High-Threat Pathogens</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In 2018, the Democratic Republic of the Congo saw two separate Ebola outbreaks, both of which spread to cities of more than 1 million people. One of the affected provinces is also in an active conflict zone.</li>
<li><strong>WHO&rsquo;s R&amp;D Blueprint</strong> identifies diseases and pathogens that have the potential to cause a public health emergency but lack effective treatments and vaccines.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>This watchlist for priority research and development includes Ebola, several other haemorrhagic fevers, Zika, Nipah, Middle East respiratory syndrome coronavirus (MERS-CoV) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS) and disease X, which represents the need to prepare for an unknown pathogen that could cause a serious epidemic.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Weak Primary Health Care</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Primary health care is usually the first point of contact people have with their health care system, and ideally should provide comprehensive, affordable, community-based care throughout life.</li>
<li><strong>Yet many countries do not have adequate primary health care facilities.</strong> This neglect may be a lack of resources in low- or middle-income countries, but possibly also a focus in the past few decades on single disease programmes.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Vaccine Hesitancy</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It is the reluctance or refusal to vaccinate despite the availability of vaccines &ndash; threatens to reverse progress made in tackling vaccine-preventable diseases.</li>
<li>Measles, for example, has seen a 30% increase in cases globally. The reasons for this rise are complex, and not all of these cases are due to vaccine hesitancy.</li>
<li>However, some countries that were close to eliminating the disease have seen a resurgence.</li>
<li>The WHO has identified <strong>complacency, inconvenience in accessing vaccines, and lack of confidence</strong> as key reasons underlying hesitancy.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Dengue</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It is a mosquito-borne disease that causes flu-like symptoms and can be lethal and kill up to 20% of those with severe dengue, has been a growing threat for decades.</li>
<li>A high number of cases occur in the rainy seasons of countries such as Bangladesh and India.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Now, the dengue season in these countries is lengthening significantly (in 2018, Bangladesh saw the highest number of deaths in almost two decades),</li>
<li>and the disease is spreading to less tropical and more temperate countries such as Nepal, that have not traditionally seen the disease.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>WHO&rsquo;s Dengue control strategy aims to reduce deaths by 50% by 2020.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>HIV</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The progress made against HIV has been enormous in terms of getting people tested, providing them with antiretrovirals (22 million are on treatment), and providing access to preventive measures such as a pre-exposure prophylaxis (PrEP, which is when people at risk of HIV take antiretrovirals to prevent infection).</li>
<li>Today, around 37 million worldwide live with HIV.</li>
<li>Reaching people like sex workers, people in prison, men who have sex with men, or transgender people is hugely challenging. Often these groups are excluded from health services.</li>
<li>A group increasingly affected by HIV are young girls and women (aged 15&ndash;24), who are particularly at high risk and account for 1 in 4 HIV infections in sub-Saharan Africa despite being only 10% of the population.</li>
<li><strong>The WHO is working with countries to support the introduction of self-testing so that more people living with HIV know their status and can receive treatment (or preventive measures in the case of a negative test result).</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>WHOs' Organisational Challenges</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The WHO has been <strong>dependant on donor funds &ndash;</strong> mainly from rich countries and foundations like the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation &ndash; rather than through secured funding from countries.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/429image1.webp" target="_blank" rel="noopener"></a>As a result, currently 80% of WHO&rsquo;s funding is tied to programs that donors choose. Work programs that are vital to WHO&rsquo;s mandate remain under funded as they clash with the interests of big donors, especially of rich and developed countries.</li>
<li>Consequently WHO&rsquo;s role as a leader in global health has been supplanted by other intergovernmental bodies such as the World Bank, and increasingly by big foundations.</li>
<li>The organisation&rsquo;s efficacy has come under question, especially after its inadequate performance in containing West Africa&rsquo;s ebola epidemic of 2014.</li>
<li>It was because of WHO's insufficient funding, structuring, staffing and bureaucracy.</li>
</ul>
</li>
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		'title' => 'Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank',
		'description' => '<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Asian Infrastructure Investment Bank (AIIB) is a multilateral development bank with a mission to improve social and economic outcomes in Asia.</li>
<li>It is established by the <strong>AIIB Articles of Agreement</strong> (entered into force <strong>Dec. 25, 2015</strong>) which is a multilateral treaty. The Parties <strong>(57 founding members)</strong> to agreement comprise the Membership of the Bank.</li>
<li><strong>It is headquartered in Beijing and began its operations in January 2016.</strong></li>
<li>The members to Bank have now grown to <strong>97 approved members worldwide.</strong> There are <strong>27 prospective members</strong> including Armenia, Lebanon, Brazil, South Africa, Greece, etc.</li>
<li><strong>Fourteen of the G-20 nations</strong> are AIIB members including France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom.</li>
<li><strong>By investing in sustainable infrastructure</strong> and other productive sectors in Asia and beyond, it will better connect people, services and markets that over time will <strong>impact the lives of billions</strong> and build a better future.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Goals</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>To foster sustainable economic development,</strong> create wealth and improve infrastructure connectivity in Asia by <strong>investing in infrastructure and other productive sectors.</strong></li>
<li><strong>To promote regional cooperation and partnership</strong> in addressing development challenges by working in close collaboration with other multilateral and bilateral development <strong>institutions.</strong></li>
<li><strong>To promote investment in the public and private capital for development purposes,</strong> in particular for development of infrastructure and other productive sectors.</li>
<li><strong>To utilize the resources at its disposal</strong> for financing such development in the region, including those projects and programs which will contribute most effectively to the harmonious economic growth of the region;</li>
<li><strong>To encourage private investment in projects,</strong> enterprises and activities contributing to economic development in the region when private capital is not available on reasonable terms and conditions.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Governance</h3>
<p><strong>Board of Governors</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Board of Governors consists of <strong>one Governor and one Alternate Governor</strong> appointed by each <strong>member country.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Governors and Alternate Governors serve at the pleasure of the appointing member. <strong>All the powers of the AIIB are vested in the Board of Governors.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The Board of Governors may <strong>delegate to the Board of Directors</strong> any or all its powers, <strong>except</strong> the power to:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>admit new members</strong> and determine the conditions of their admission;</li>
<li>increase or decrease the <strong>authorized capital stock of the Bank;</strong></li>
<li><strong>elect the Directors of the Bank</strong> and determine the expenses to be paid for Directors and Alternate Directors and remuneration;</li>
<li><strong>elect the President,</strong> suspend or remove him from office, and determine his remuneration and other conditions of service;</li>
<li>approve, after <strong>reviewing the auditors&rsquo; report,</strong> the general balance sheet and the statement of profit and loss of the Bank;</li>
<li><strong>amend the 'AIIB Articles of Agreement';</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Annual Meeting</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong>first AIIB Board of Governors</strong> meeting was held in <strong>Beijing</strong>, China in 2016.</li>
<li>The <strong>second</strong> was held in <strong>Jeju, Korea in 2017</strong> and the <strong>third was held in Mumbai, India in 2018.</strong></li>
<li>On July 12-13, <strong>2019 Luxembourg</strong> will host <strong>AIIB&rsquo;s first Annual Meeting to be held outside Asia.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li><strong>The theme of the 2019 Annual Meeting</strong> is <strong>&ldquo;Cooperation and Connectivity&rdquo;</strong> in recognition of the economic and social benefits to be realized through <strong>better connectivity</strong> within and between countries and regions,<strong> including Europe and Asia.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Board of Directors</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Board of Directors are composed of <strong>twelve members</strong> who shall not be members of the Board of Governors, and of whom:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>nine are elected by the Governors representing regional members;</strong> and</li>
<li><strong>three</strong> are elected by the Governors representing <strong>non-regional members</strong>.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Directors of the Board are persons of high competence in economic and financial matters.</li>
<li>Directors represent members whose Governors have elected them as well as members whose Governors assign their votes to them.</li>
<li>Board of Directors is a <strong>non-resident Board to reduce operating cost.</strong></li>
<li>It is <strong>responsible for</strong> the direction of the <strong>Bank&rsquo;s general operations</strong>, exercising <strong>all powers delegated</strong> to it by the Board of Governors. This includes: <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>approving the <strong>Bank&rsquo;s strategy, annual plan</strong> and <strong>budget;</strong></li>
<li>establishing policies;</li>
<li>taking decisions concerning Bank operations;</li>
<li>and supervising management and operation of the Bank and establishing an oversight mechanism.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/815image2.webp" target="_blank" rel="noopener"></a></h3>
<h3>Senior Management</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>AIIB staff is headed by the President</strong> who is elected by AIIB shareholders for a five-year term and eligible for reelection once.</li>
<li>The President is supported by Senior Management which includes five Vice Presidents responsible for: <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>policy and strategy</li>
<li>investment operations, finance</li>
<li>administration and the corporate secretariat and the General Counsel</li>
<li>Chief Risk Officer and Chief Programmer Officer</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>International Advisory Panel (IAP)</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Bank has established <strong>an IAP to support the President and Senior Management</strong> on the Bank&rsquo;s <strong>strategies</strong> and<strong> policies</strong> as well as on general operational issues.</li>
<li><strong>The President selects and appoints members of the IAP</strong> to an initial two-year term, which can be renewed upon completion.</li>
<li>The Panel meets at least twice a year, once in tandem with the Bank&rsquo;s Annual Meeting, and second time at the Bank&rsquo;s Headquarters in Beijing.</li>
<li>Panelists receive a small honorarium and do not receive a salary. The Bank pays the reasonable costs associated with Panel meetings.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Membership</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Membership in the AIIB is <strong>open to all members of the</strong> <a href="/important-institutions/drishti-specials-important-institutions-international-institution/world-bank-group" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>World Bank</strong></a> or the <strong>Asian Development Bank</strong> and is divided into <strong>regional</strong> and <strong>non-regional</strong> members. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Regional members are those located within areas classified as Asia and Oceania by the <strong><a href="/important-institutions/drishti-specials-important-institutions-international-institution/united-nations-1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">United Nations</a>.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Unlike other MDBs (multilateral development bank), the <strong>AIIB allows for non-sovereign entities</strong> to apply for AIIB membership, <strong>assuming their home country is a member.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Thus, sovereign wealth funds (such as the China Investment Corporation) or state-owned enterprises of member countries could potentially join the Bank.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Financial Resources of AIIB</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The AIIB's initial total capital is USD 100 billion divided into <strong>1 million shares of 100 000 dollars each</strong>, with 20% paid-in and 80% callable.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Paid-Up Share Capital:</strong> It is the amount of money that has already been paid by investors in exchange for shares of stock.</li>
<li><strong>Called-Up Share Capital:</strong> Some companies may issue shares to investors with the understanding they will be paid at a later date. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>This allows for <strong>more flexible investment terms</strong> and may <strong>entice investors to contribute more share capital</strong> than if they had to provide funds up front.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>China</strong> is the largest contributor to the Bank, contributing <strong>USD 50 billion</strong>, half of the initial subscribed capital.</li>
<li><strong>India</strong> is the second-largest shareholder, contributing <strong>USD 8.4 billion.</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>Voting Rights</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>China is the largest shareholder with 26.61</strong> % voting shares in the bank followed by <strong>India (7.6%),</strong> Russia (6.01%) and Germany (4.2 %).</li>
<li>The regional members hold 75% of the total voting power in the Bank.</li>
<li>The AIIB has a governance structure similar to other MDBs (multilateral development bank), with two key differences: <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>it does <strong>not have a resident board of executive directors</strong> that represents member countries' interests on a day-to-day basis; and</li>
<li>the AIIB gives <strong>more decision making authority to regional countries</strong> and the largest shareholder, China.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>AIIB Lending</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>The recipients of AIIB financing</strong> may include <strong>member countries</strong> (or agencies and entities or enterprises in member territories), as well as <strong>international or regional agencies</strong> concerned with the economic development of the Asia-Pacific region.</li>
<li>The AIIB has signed a co-<strong>financing framework agreement</strong> with the World Bank and<strong> three nonbinding</strong> Memoranda of Understanding (MOU) with: <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>the Asian Development Bank (ADB),</li>
<li>European Bank for Reconstruction and Development (EBRD),</li>
<li>and the European Investment Bank (EIB).</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>The bulk of AIIB&rsquo;s operations</strong> are in <strong>South Asia.</strong></li>
<li>The Bank can lend outside Asia provided that it supports connectivity with Asia or it is for a global public good and that the loan significantly benefits Asia. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>The ceiling for non-regional loans is 25%.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The key sectors for the Bank are Energy, Transport, Water and Urban development.</li>
<li><strong>About two-thirds of the loans</strong> approved by the bank have been <strong>co-financed</strong> with other multilateral lending institutions, including the <strong>World Bank and the ADB.</strong></li>
<li>The <strong>triple-A ratings</strong> from <strong>Standard &amp; Poor&rsquo;s, Moody&rsquo;s and Fitch,</strong> reflect the Bank&rsquo;s commitment to the highest standards of governance, enhanced transparency and accountability.</li>
<li>Approved investment operations of AIIB reached <strong>USD 7.94 billion in April, 2019.</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>China&rsquo;s Motivation for Creating the AIIB</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>The creation of the AIIB</strong> is part of a <strong>broader reorientation of Chinese foreign and international economic policy</strong> that has taken place <strong>since Xi Jinping</strong> became Chinese Communist Party General Secretary in 2012 and the President in 2013.</li>
<li><a href="/to-the-points/Paper2/obor-cpec" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>&ldquo;One Belt, One Road&rdquo; (OBOR) Initiative</strong></a> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It identified 65 countries that will be participating in the initiative, which aims to use trade promotion, infrastructure development, and regional connectivity, to boost economic linkages between China and dozens of countries along <strong>a land route</strong> (the <strong>Silk Road Economic Belt</strong>) and a <strong>sea route</strong> (the 21st Century <strong>Maritime Silk Road</strong>).</li>
<li><strong>To realize this vision</strong>, China is <strong>investing in a range of institutions and initiatives,</strong> including the <strong>AIIB</strong>, and other funding mechanisms such as the <strong>Silk Road Fund</strong> (established in 2014) and the<strong> New Development Bank</strong> (also known as the <strong>BRICS Bank</strong> established in 2014), a collective arrangement with Brazil, Russia, India, and South Africa.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>China also seeks to influence the <strong>emerging structure of regional trade and investment</strong> relations.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>By helping to finance OBOR, AIIB may influence these relationships. It may also reinforce a regional infrastructure that has China as its hub.</li>
<li>As a result, <strong>regional economies may be more inclined</strong> to augment trade and investment relations <strong>with China rather than with other</strong> economies, such as<strong> Japan, South Korea, Taiwan,</strong> and<strong> the United States.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>AIIB and India</h3>
<p><strong>China Factor</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>There are various issues between India and China:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Indian membership in the Nuclear Suppliers Group (China maintains that it will not support India&rsquo;s entry until there is a universal formula to accept applications from all countries that <strong>haven&rsquo;t signed the Non-Proliferation Treaty-</strong> indirectly pursuing case for Pakistan),</li>
<li><strong>territorial disputes</strong> in the Himalayas,</li>
<li>concerns over the China-Pakistan Economic Corridor&rsquo;s traversal of disputed territory in Kashmir.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>India <strong>has serious concerns over Chinese foreign policy</strong> in its region generally and the OBOR initiative specifically, regarding Beijing&rsquo;s attempts to seek influence in <strong>its immediate neighborhood with great interest.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Despite aforesaid issues</strong> between India and China, <strong>the AIIB plays a crucial role implicitly in consensus building process:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong>AIIB</strong> has acquired the status of <strong>a plurilateral lending initiative</strong>, so there is no problem for either India, or China, in <strong>overlooking bilateral differences</strong> and working together at the AIIB.</li>
<li>India can open up investment opportunities in the region through AIIB.</li>
<li>By hosting the <strong>AIIB&rsquo;s third annual meeting</strong> (2018, Mumbai) under the theme of &ldquo;Mobilising Finance for Infrastructure: Innovation and Collaboration&rdquo;, <strong>India has reiterated its openness to infrastructure collaboration.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Economic Contribution of AIIB</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>India is the largest beneficiary of AIIB</strong> financing for infrastructure projects. The AIIB has approved five projects in India. These are &mdash; <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Bangalore Metro Rail Project (USD 335 million),</li>
<li>Transmission System Strengthening Project,</li>
<li>Gujarat Rural Roads (MMGSY) Project (providing USD329 million through a 13 -year loan to provide all -weather connectivity to 4,000 villages in the 33 districts of Gujarat state),</li>
<li>India Infrastructure Fund</li>
<li>and Andhra Pradesh 24&times;7 &ndash; Power For All project.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The total loan sanctioned by AIIB to <strong>five Indian projects is USD 1.074 billion.</strong> This accounts to almost <strong>28% of the total money the bank has lent to 24 infrastructure projects worldwide.&nbsp;</strong>The AIIB has approved for lending USD 200 million to <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/aiib-approves-455-million-dollar-loan-for-andhra-pradesh" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>National Investment and Infrastructure Fund (NIIF).</strong></a><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>NIIF is an Indian-government backed entity established to provide long-term capital to the country&rsquo;s infrastructure sector. Its portfolio includes investments in ports and logistics, real estate and renewables.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>In feb, 2019 the AIIB and the Government of India signed <strong>a USD 455 million loan</strong> to finance the <strong>Andhra Pradesh Rural Roads Project</strong>, which will connect some 3,300 habitations with a population of more than 250, and benefit around two Million people.</li>
</ul>
<h3>The AIIB Concerns</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>The United States has opposed the AIIB</strong> and considers <strong>AIIB as an unwanted intrusion</strong> in the multilateral financial system. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Emergence of AIIB, largely funded by China, poses a threat to the monopoly of the United States on the world's financial system for over half a century</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The world's leading industrialized economies, <strong>Japan and the U.S. are not members</strong> of the AIIB because of following expressed concerns:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>There is no certainty that the bank will maintain <strong>its rigorous loan-screening practices</strong> or keep its funding operations separate from <strong>China's political ambitions.</strong></li>
<li>Joining the AIIB would require making a <strong>huge financial contribution to the entity.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Asia's infrastructure investment needs are so vast that <strong>no single institutional lender can meet that demand on its own.</strong></li>
<li style="list-style-type: none;">
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong>U.S. government is</strong> seemingly intent on <strong>pursuing inward-looking policies through protectionism and trade war.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The bank is concerned with <strong>predicted downward trend in project finance because of slow global economy and trade war.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Slowing economies can lead to <strong>governments failing to meet contractual obligations</strong> towards AIIB and <strong>trade frictions may erode the potential of infrastructure projects.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>AIIB&rsquo;s non resident board, <strong>inhibits transparency and accountability.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>It reinforces the perception</strong> that the AIIB will be much more centrally <strong>controlled by the Chinese government.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Conclusion</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It is well proved throughout the history of economic growth &amp; development that the creation and development of robust financial institutions will make market forces more competitive leading towards comprehensive growth and development of society.</li>
<li>The AIIB can create own space by contributing to sustained economic growth leading towards improved living standard of millions of poor people across Asia and other regions.</li>
<li>The AIIB is still in its evolutionary phase that must be <strong>nurtured with democratice principles avoiding single-country dominance</strong> (Chinese dominance) like that of USA in IMF and World Bank.</li>
<li>India as an emerging economy, can play a vital role in <strong>shaping the foundation of AIIB for the cause of poor people</strong> spread across developing countries.</li>
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