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Battle of Saragarhi

Why in News Recently, 12th September marked the 124th anniversary of the Battle of Saragarhi. Key Points The Battle of Saragarhi is considered...

13 Sep 2021 Modern Indian History
V. O. Chidambaram Pillai

Why in News Recently, the Prime Minister paid tribute to V. O. Chidambaram Pillai, the legendary freedom fighter on his 150th birth...

07 Sep 2021 Modern Indian History
Udham Singh

Why in News Amid criticism of the renovated Jallianwala Bagh memorial, some people raise questions over the statue of Shaheed Udham Singh installed...

03 Sep 2021 Modern Indian History
Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

Why in News The Prime Minister will inaugurate the newly renovated Jallianwala Bagh complex and museum in Amritsar (Punjab). Key...

28 Aug 2021 Modern Indian History
Moplah Rebellion

Why in News Recently, a political leader claimed that the Moplah rebellion, also known as the Mappila riots, of 1921 was one of the first...

20 Aug 2021 Modern Indian History
India’s Flag Code Rules

Why in News On 15th August, 2021, India celebrated its 75th Independence Day, and like every year the Prime Minister of India hoisted the National...

16 Aug 2021 Modern Indian History
Quit India Movement

Why in News On 8th Aug 2021, India completed 79 years of Quit India Movement also known as August Kranti. Key Points About: On 8th August...

09 Aug 2021 Modern Indian History
Movement of the Working Class

Introduction Rise of Working Class: The modern working class arose in India with the introduction of capitalism in the 19th century under...

02 Aug 2021 Modern Indian History
Cooperative Movement in India

Cooperatives in India Definition: The International Cooperative Alliance (ICA) defines a Cooperative as “an autonomous association of...

26 Jul 2021 Modern Indian History
Chandra Shekahr Azad

Why in News On 23rd July, India paid tribute to the freedom fighter Chandra Shekahr Azad on his birth anniversary. Key Points Birth: Azad was...

24 Jul 2021 Modern Indian History
Tipu Sultan

Why in News Recently, naming a garden on Tipu Sultan in Mumbai sparked a controversy. Key Points Brief Profile: Born in November 1750,...

20 Jul 2021 Modern Indian History
Peasant Movements in India

Introduction Peasant Struggles: In these struggles, the peasants emerged as the main force, fighting directly for their own demands. The...

12 Jul 2021 Modern Indian History
Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay

Why in News Indian Prime Minister paid homage to Rishi Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay on his Jayanti on 27th June. Key Points About: He was...

28 Jun 2021 Modern Indian History
Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement

Introduction Mass Movements: Two mass movements were organized in 1919-1922 to oppose the British rule in India are the Khilafat movement and the...

21 Jun 2021 Modern Indian History
Swadeshi and Boycott Movement

Introduction Emergence of Nationalism: It was only in the 19th Century that the concept of a national identity and national consciousness...

15 Jun 2021 Modern Indian History
Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj

Why in News On the occasion of the anniversary of Maratha king’s coronation day (6th June), the Goa government has released a short film on...

07 Jun 2021 Modern Indian History
Veer Savarkar Jayanti

Why in News On 28th May, India paid tribute to the freedom fighter, Vinayak Damodar Savarkar (Veer Savarkar) on his birth anniversary. He was an...

29 May 2021 Modern Indian History
Government of India Act, 1919

Introduction Background: In 1918, Edwin Montagu, the Secretary of State, and Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy, produced their scheme of constitutional...

25 May 2021 Modern Indian History
Gopal Krishna Gokhale

Why in News The Prime Minister of India paid tribute to Gopal Krishna Gokhale on his Jayanti. Gopal Krishna Gokhale was a great social reformer...

11 May 2021 Modern Indian History
Reforms and Administration under Lord Curzon

About Lord Curzon George Nathaniel Curzon (11 January, 1859- 20 March, 1925) born in Kedleston Hall, England was a British statesman and foreign...

10 May 2021 Modern Indian History

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		'article_id' => (int) 9754,
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		'title' => 'Battle of Saragarhi',
		'description' => '<h3>Why in News</h3>
<p>Recently, <strong>12<sup>th</sup> September</strong> marked the <strong>124<sup>th</sup> anniversary of the Battle of Saragarhi.</strong></p>
<h3>Key Points</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Battle of Saragarhi is considered <strong>one of the finest last stands in the military history of the world.</strong> </li>
<li><strong>Saragarhi</strong> was the <strong>communication tower between Fort Lockhart and Fort Gulistan.</strong> The two forts in the rugged <strong>North West Frontier Province (NWFP),</strong> now in Pakistan, were built by <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/maharaja-ranjit-singh" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Maharaja Ranjit Singh</strong></a> but renamed by the British.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Saragarhi helped to link up the two important forts which housed a large number of British troops in the rugged terrain of NWFP.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Twenty-one soldiers were pitted against over 8,000 Afridi and Orakzai tribals</strong> but they managed to hold the fort for seven hours. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Though Saragarhi was usually manned by a platoon of 40 soldiers, on that fateful day, it was being held by only 21 soldiers from 36<sup>th</sup> Sikh Regiment (now 4<sup>th</sup> Sikh in Indian Army) and a <strong>non-combatant called Daad,</strong> a Pashtun who did odd jobs for the troops.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Though heavily outnumbered, the soldiers of 36<sup>th</sup> Sikhs, <strong>led by Havildar Ishar Singh,</strong> fought till their last breath, killing 200 tribals and injuring 600.</li>
<li>In 2017, the Punjab government decided to observe Saragarhi Day on 12<sup>th</sup> September as a holiday.</li>
<li>Even today the <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/gilgit-baltistan-to-become-a-pakistani-province" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Khyber</strong></a> Scouts regiment of the Pakistani army mounts a guard and salutes the Saragarhi memorial close to Fort Lockhart.</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1631536778_image14.png" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1631536778_image14.png" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" caption="false" width="508" height="293" /></a></p>
<p><a href="https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/battle-of-saragarhi-explained-when-21-men-fought-thousands-7503623/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Source: IE</strong></a></p>',
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		'article_id' => (int) 9646,
		'category_id' => (int) 21,
		'title' => 'V. O. Chidambaram Pillai',
		'description' => '<h3>Why in News</h3>
<p>Recently, the Prime Minister paid tribute to V. O. Chidambaram Pillai, the legendary freedom fighter on his <strong>150<sup>th</sup> birth anniversary.</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>He was popularly<strong> known as Kappalottiya Tamilan</strong> (The Tamil Helmsman) and <strong>Sekkizuththa Semmal</strong> (scholarly gentry who suffered at the oil press).</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1630996833_image2.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1630996833_image2.jpg" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="250" caption="false" /></a></p>
<h3>Key Points</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Birth:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Vallinayagam Olaganathan Chidambaram Pillai (VOC)</strong> was born<strong> 5<sup>th</sup> September 1872</strong> to an eminent lawyer Olaganathan Pillai and Paramyee Ammai in Ottapidaram, Tirunelveli district of Tamil Nadu.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Early Life:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>VOC <strong>graduated from Caldwell College, Tuticorin.</strong> Before beginning his <strong>law studies</strong>, he worked for a brief period as the<strong> taluk office clerk.</strong></li>
<li>His<strong> tussle with the judge</strong> forced him to seek fresh pastures <strong>at Tuticorin in 1900.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Until 1905, professional and journalistic activities</strong> consumed most of his energy.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Entry in Politics:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>VOC entered politics<strong> in 1905 following the <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/bengal-partition#:~:text=The%20Partition%20of%20India%20in,mass%20migration%20in%20human%20history." target="_blank" rel="noopener">partition of Bengal</a>.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Towards the end of 1905, VOC visited Madras and was drawn closer to the <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/swadeshi-and-boycott-movement" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Swadeshi Movement</strong></a> initiated by <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/bal-gangadhar-tilak" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Bal Gangadhar Tilak</strong></a> and <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/lala-lajpat-rai" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Lala Lajpat Rai.</strong></a></li>
<li>VOC was <strong>drawn towards <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/swami-vivekananda#:~:text=He%20was%20the%20chief%20disciple,welfare%20and%20relief%20and%20rehabilitation." target="_blank" rel="noopener">Ramakrishna Mission</a></strong> and came into contact with Subramania Bharati and the Mandayam family.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>It was not until the<strong> arrival of VOC at Tuticorin (Present day Thoothukudi)</strong> that the <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/swadeshi-and-boycott-movement" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Swadeshi movement</strong></a> in Tirunelveli district began to gather force and momentum.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Role Played in Freedom Movement:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>By <strong>1906,</strong> VOC won the support of merchants and industrialists in Tuticorin and Tirunelveli for the idea of <strong>establishing a Swadeshi merchant shipping outfit</strong> by the name of the <strong>Swadeshi Steam Navigation Company (SSNCo).</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>He<strong> established many institutions</strong> like Swadeshi Prachar Sabha, Dharmasanga Nesavu Salai, National Godown, Madras Agro-Industrial Society Ltd and Desabimana Sangam.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>VOC and Siva were aided in their efforts by a number of Tirunelveli-based lawyers, who formed <strong>an organisation called the Swadeshi Sangam, or &lsquo;National Volunteers&rsquo;.</strong></li>
<li>The nationalist movement acquired a secondary character with the <strong>beginning of the Tuticorin Coral Mills strike (1908).</strong></li>
<li>Even prior to <a href="/mains-practice-question/question-226" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Gandhiji&rsquo;s Champaran Satyagraha</strong></a> (1917), VOC took up the cause of the working class in Tamil Nadu, and thus he is a <strong>forerunner to Gandhiji in this respect.</strong></li>
<li>VOC, along with other leaders, resolved to take out a mammoth procession on the morning of 9<sup>th</sup> March 1908 to celebrate the<strong> release of Bipin Chandra Pal from jail and to hoist the flag of Swaraj.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Writings:</strong> Meyyaram (1914), Meyyarivu (1915), Anthology (1915), Thirukural with literary notes of Manakudavar (1917), Tholkappiam with literary notes of Ilampooranar (1928), Autobiography (1946).</li>
<li><strong>Death:</strong> V.O.C died on <strong>18<sup>th</sup> November 1936</strong> in the <strong>Indian National Congress Office</strong> at Tuticorin as was his last wish.</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1752201" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Source: PIB</strong></a></p>',
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		'article_id' => (int) 9599,
		'category_id' => (int) 21,
		'title' => 'Udham Singh',
		'description' => '<h3>Why in News</h3>
<p>Amid criticism of the renovated<a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/jallianwala-bagh-massacre-2" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong> Jallianwala Bagh</strong></a> memorial, some people raise questions over the statue of<strong> Shaheed Udham Singh</strong> installed at the Bagh.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1630667403_image8.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1630667403_image8.jpg" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" caption="false" /></a></p>
<h3>Key Points</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>About:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Born in Sunam in Punjab&rsquo;s Sangrur district in 1899, also referred to as <strong>Shaheed-i-Azam Sardar Udham Singh</strong> which means<strong> &lsquo;Great Martyr&rsquo;.</strong></li>
<li>He is regarded as one of the foremost revolutionaries of the <a href="/tags/indian-national-movement" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Indian Freedom Struggle.</strong></a></li>
<li>Following the<strong> Jallianwala Massacre</strong> on 13<sup>th</sup> April 1919, he got profoundly<strong> involved in revolutionary activities</strong> and politics. He was deeply influenced by <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/bhagat-singh-s-birth-anniversary" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Bhagat Singh.</strong></a></li>
<li>He joined the <strong>Ghadar Party</strong> in 1924 to organise overseas Indians with the purpose of overthrowing colonial rule.</li>
<li>In 1927, while returning to India with associates and weapons to carry out revolutionary activities, he was arrested for illegal possession of firearms and sentenced to five years in prison.</li>
<li>On <strong>13<sup>th</sup> March, 1940, Singh shot Michael O&rsquo;Dwyer</strong> instead of <strong>General Dyer</strong> at a meeting of the East India Association and the Royal Central Asian Society at Caxton Hill. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>General Dyer, who ordered open firing on people protesting against the <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-editorials/jallianwala-bagh-massacre" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Rowlatt Act.</strong></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>He was <strong>sentenced to death and was hanged on 31<sup>st</sup> July, 1940</strong> at Pentonville Prison in London.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Ghadar Party:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It was an<strong> Indian revolutionary organisation,</strong> with the aim to <strong>liberate India from British rule.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li><strong>&lsquo;Ghadar&rsquo; &ndash;</strong> also written as &lsquo;Ghadr&rsquo; in English &ndash; is an <strong>Urdu word for rebellion.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The party was <strong>formed</strong> in the United States <strong>in 1913, by migrant Indians, mostly Punjabis.</strong> However, the party also included Indians from all parts of India.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Motive was to wage <strong>a nationwide armed struggle against British colonialism</strong> in India.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The party was established as the <strong>Hindi Association of Pacific Coast</strong> under the leadership of <strong>Lala Har Dayal</strong> with <strong>Baba Sohan Singh Bhakna</strong> as its president.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The party is<strong> known for setting the foundation for future Indian revolutionary movements</strong> and served as a stepping stone for independence.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Most members</strong> of the Ghadar party came from the<strong> peasantry</strong> who first began <strong>migrating from Punjab to cities in Asia</strong> like Hong Kong, Manila and Singapore at the dawn of the 20<sup>th</sup> century.</li>
<li>Later, with the rise in the lumber industry in Canada and the US, many moved to North America, where they thrived &ndash; but also became victims of institutionalised racism.</li>
<li>The Ghadar movement <strong>&lsquo;inspired to transpose egalitarian values</strong> (Egalitarianism) <strong>of American culture in the social framework of colonial India&rsquo;.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li><strong>Egalitarianism</strong> is a doctrine based on the notion of equality, namely, that all people are equal and deserve equal treatment in all things.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/chandigarh/amid-flak-over-udham-singh-statue-kamboj-community-asks-why-after-three-years-7485815/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Source: IE</strong></a></p>',
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		'article_id' => (int) 9503,
		'category_id' => (int) 21,
		'title' => 'Jallianwala Bagh Massacre',
		'description' => '<h3>Why in News</h3>
<p>The Prime Minister will inaugurate the <strong>newly renovated Jallianwala Bagh complex and museum</strong> in Amritsar (Punjab).</p>
<h3>Key Points</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>About:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The complex is a memorial <strong>dedicated to those who were killed on 13<sup>th</sup> April, 1919</strong> on orders of Brigadier General Reginald Edward Dyer.</li>
<li>The tragedy, <strong>also known as the Massacre of Amritsar,</strong> exposed the inhuman approach of the British when the British troops under General Dyer opened fire into an unarmed crowd.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Preclude to the Event:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The massacre of April 1919 wasn't an isolated incident, rather <strong>an incident that happened with a multitude of factors</strong> working in the background.</li>
<li>During <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/world-war-I-centenary" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>World War I (1914&ndash;18)</strong></a>, the British government of India enacted a series of repressive emergency powers that were intended to combat subversive activities.</li>
<li>The Anarchical and Revolutionary Crimes Act of 1919 popularly known as <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/100-years-of-rowlatt-satyagraha" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Rowlatt Act (Black Act)</strong></a> which was passed on 10<sup>th</sup> March, 1919, authorized the government to imprison or confine, without a trial, any person associated with seditious activities which led to nationwide unrest.</li>
<li>On 13<sup>th</sup> April 1919, a crowd of at least 10,000 men, women and children gathered in Jallianwala Bagh to <strong>request the release of Dr. Saifuddin Kitchlew and Dr. Satyapal.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The two prominent leaders who were a symbol of Hindu-muslim unity, organised a peaceful protest against the Rowlatt act. They were arrested and taken out of the city.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Brigadier-General Dyer on hearing about the meeting, deployed his troops and ordered them to open fire. The only exit to the park was sealed and indiscriminate firing took place killing hundreds of innocent civilians.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Post Jallianwala Bagh Incident:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The shooting was followed by the <strong>proclamation of martial law in the Punjab that included public floggings and other humiliations.</strong> Indian outrage grew as news of the shooting and subsequent British actions spread throughout the subcontinent.</li>
<li>The Bengali poet and Nobel laureate <strong><a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/rabindranath-tagore" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Rabindranath Tagore</a> renounced the knighthood that he had received in 1915.</strong></li>
<li>Mahatma <strong>Gandhi gave up the title of Kaiser-i-Hind,</strong> bestowed by the British for his work during the Boer War (South African War, 1899-1902).</li>
<li>The <strong>sole Indian representative at that time in the Viceroy&rsquo;s Executive Council - <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/sir-chettur-sankaran-nair" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Chettur Sankaran Nair</a> (1857-1934) -</strong> resigned from his post in protest. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li><strong>Lord Chelmsford</strong> was the<strong> Viceroy.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>On 14<sup>th</sup> October, 1919, the <strong>Disorders Inquiry Committee</strong> was formed to inquire about the massacre. It later came to be <strong>known as the Hunter Commission</strong> after the name of chairman, Lord William Hunter. It also had Indian members.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The Hunter Commission in 1920 censured Dyer for his actions and was directed to resign from his appointment as Brigade Commander.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The <strong>Indian National Congress</strong> appointed <strong>its own non-official committee</strong> that included Motilal Nehru, C.R. Das, Abbas Tyabji, M.R. Jayakar, and Gandhi to look into the shootings.</li>
<li>Gandhi soon began organizing his first large-scale and sustained nonviolent protest (satyagraha) campaign, the <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/centenary-of-the-chauri-chaura-incident" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Non Cooperation Movement (1920&ndash;22)</strong> </a>which proved a step in the direction of ending the British rule of India 25 years later.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-what-went-through-the-mind-of-brig-gen-dyer-on-fateful-day-of-jallianwala-bagh-massacre-7474431/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Source: IE</strong></a></p>',
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		'article_id' => (int) 9385,
		'category_id' => (int) 21,
		'title' => 'Moplah Rebellion',
		'description' => '<h3>Why in News</h3>
<p>Recently, a political leader claimed that the <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/moplah-uprising" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Moplah rebellion</strong></a>, also known as the <strong>Mappila riots, of 1921</strong> was one of the first manifestations of the<a href="/current-affairs-news-analysis-editorials/news-analysis/17-08-2021" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong> Taliban</strong></a> mindset in India.</p>
<h3>Key Points</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Moplahs/Mappilas:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The name Mappilla (lit. son-in-law; anglicized form Moplah) is given to <strong>Malayali-speaking Muslims who reside along the entire length of the Malabar Coast of northern Kerala.</strong></li>
<li>By 1921, the <strong>Moplahs formed the largest and fastest growing community in Malabar.</strong> With a population of one million, <strong>32% of that of Malabar as a whole</strong>, the Moplahs were concentrated in South Malabar.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Background:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In the sixteenth century when Portuguese traders arrived on the Malabar coast, they noted the <strong>Mappilas to be a mercantile community concentrated in urban centres</strong> and fairly segregated from the local Hindu population.</li>
<li>However, with the <strong>rise in Portuguese commercial power, the Mappilas found themselves a competitor</strong> and increasingly started moving inland in search of new economic opportunities.</li>
<li>The <strong>shifting of the Mappilas led to a clash of religious identities</strong> both with the local Hindu population and the Portuguese.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>The Revolt:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Fuelled by the fiery speeches by Muslim religious leaders and anti-british sentiments</strong>, the Mopillahs launched a <strong>violent rebellion</strong>. Numerous acts of violence were reported and a series of persecutions were committed both against the British and the Hindu landlords.</li>
<li>While there are some who call it a <strong>case of religious fanaticism</strong>, there are others who look at it as an instance of <strong>struggle against British authority</strong>, and then there are others who perceive the Malabar rebellion to be a<strong> peasant revolt against unfair practices of the landlords.</strong></li>
<li>While historians continue to debate on the matter, the broad consensus on the episode notes it to have started off as a <strong>struggle against political power, which later took on a communal colour.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Most of the <strong>landlords were Namboodiri Brahmins</strong> while most of the tenants were Mapillah Muslims.</li>
<li>The riots led to the mass <strong>killings of over 10,000 Hindus</strong>, raping of women, forced religious conversions, destruction or damage of nearly 300 temples, loot and arson of properties worth crores of rupees and burning of houses belonging to the Hindus.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Reasons:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Non-Cooperation &amp; Khilafat Movement:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The trigger of the uprising came from the <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/khilafat-and-non-cooperation-movement" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Non-Cooperation Movement</strong></a> launched by the Congress in 1920 along with the<strong> Khilafat agitation.</strong></li>
<li>The<strong> anti-British sentiment fuelled by these agitations</strong> affected the Muslim Mapillahs.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>New Tenancy Laws:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>After the death of <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/tipu-sultan" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Tipu Sultan</strong></a> in 1799 in the Fourth Anglo-Mysore War, Malabar had come under British authority as part of the Madras Presidency.</li>
<li>The <strong>British had introduced new tenancy laws</strong> that tremendously favoured the landlords known as Janmis and instituted a far more exploitative system for peasants than before.</li>
<li>The <strong>new laws deprived the peasants of all guaranteed rights</strong> <strong>to the land</strong>, share in the produce they earlier got and in effect rendered them landless.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Support:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In the initial stages, the movement had the support of <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/mahatma-gandhi-jayanti" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Mahatma Gandhi</strong></a> and other Indian nationalist leaders, but as it turned violent they distanced themselves from it.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Collapse:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>By the <strong>end of 1921, the rebellion was crushed by the British</strong> who had raised a special battalion, the Malabar Special Force for the riot.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Wagon Tragedy:</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In November 1921, 67 <strong>Moplah prisoners were killed</strong> when they were being transported in a closed freight wagon from Tirur to the Central Prison in Podanur. They <strong>died of suffocation.</strong> This event is called the Wagon Tragedy.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<table border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 100%; height: 19px; background-color: #c92626; text-align: center; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747;" colspan="2"><span style="color: #ffffff;"><strong>Major Pre-Independence Agrarian Revolts</strong></span></td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 67px;">
<td style="width: 21.5808%; height: 45px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;"><strong>Santhal Rebellion (1855-56)</strong></td>
<td style="width: 78.4192%; height: 45px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">The Santhals take global pride in the Santhal rebellion where over 1,000 Santhals and <strong>leaders of Sidho and Kanho</strong> Murmu rose against domination and battled against the vast East India Company (The Britishers).</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 67px;">
<td style="width: 21.5808%; height: 43px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<p><strong>Indigo Revolt (1859-60)</strong>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
<td style="width: 78.4192%; height: 43px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">It was a <strong>revolt by the farmers against British planters</strong> who had forced them to grow indigo under terms that were greatly unfavourable to the farmers.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 54px;">
<td style="width: 21.5808%; height: 44px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<p><strong>Pabna Uprisings (1872-1875)</strong>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
<td style="width: 78.4192%; height: 44px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">It was a<strong> resistance movement against the oppression of the zamindars.</strong> It originated in the Yusufshahi pargana, which is now the Sirajganj district within greater Pabna, Bangladesh.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 21.5808%; height: 19px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<p><strong>Deccan Riots (1875)</strong>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
<td style="width: 78.4192%; height: 19px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">The Deccan peasants uprising was directed mainly <strong>against the excesses of the Marwari and Gujarati money lenders.</strong> The ryots suffered heavy taxation under the <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/land-revenue-systems-in-british-india#:~:text=Under%20the%20Ryotwari%20system%2C%20the,as%20they%20paid%20the%20rent." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Ryotwari system</strong></a>. The land revenue was also raised by 50% in 1867.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 21.5808%; height: 19px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<p><strong>Pagri Sambhal Movement (1907)</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 78.4192%; height: 19px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">It was a successful farm agitation that forced the British government to repeal three laws related to agriculture. <strong><a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/bhagat-singh-s-birth-anniversary" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Bhagat Singh&rsquo;s</a></strong> uncle Ajit Singh was the force behind this agitation.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 21.5808%; height: 19px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<p><strong>Peasant Movement in Oudha (1918-1922)</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 78.4192%; height: 19px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">It was<strong> led by Baba Ramchandra</strong>, a Sanyasi, who had earlier been to Fiji as an indentured laborer. He led a peasant's movement in Awadh against Talukdars and Landlords. He <strong>demanded reduction of rent, abolition of Begar and the boycott of landlords.</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 21.5808%; height: 19px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<p><strong>Champaran Movement (1917-18)</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 78.4192%; height: 19px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">The <strong>peasantry on the indigo plantations in the Champaran district of Bihar was excessively oppressed by the European planters</strong> and compelled to grow indigo on at least 3/20th of their land and sell it at prices fixed by the planters. In 1917, <strong>Mahatma Gandhi reached Champaran and defied the orders of district officials for leaving Champaran.</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 21.5808%; height: 19px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<p><strong>Peasant Agitation in Kheda (1918)</strong>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
<td style="width: 78.4192%; height: 19px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">It was chiefly directed <strong>against the Government.</strong> In 1918, the crops failed in the Kheda district of Gujarat but the <strong>government refused to remit land revenue and insisted on its full collection</strong>. Gandhiji along with <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/statue-of-unity-1" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Sardar Vallabhai Patel</strong></a> supported the peasants and advised them to withhold payment of revenues till their demand for its remission was met.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 21.5808%; height: 19px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<p><strong>Moplah Rebellion (1921)</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 78.4192%; height: 19px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">The Moplahs were the Muslim tenants inhabiting the Malabar region where most of the landlords were Hindus. Their<strong> grievances centred around lack of security of tenure, high rents, renewal fees and other oppressive exactions.</strong> The Moplah movement merged with the ongoing Khilafat agitation.</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 21.5808%; height: 19px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<p><strong>Bardoli Satyagraha (1928)</strong>&nbsp;</p>
</td>
<td style="width: 78.4192%; height: 19px; background-color: #fffafa; border-style: solid; border-color: #c44747; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">It was a movement in the independence struggle<strong> led by Sardar Vallabhai Patel for the farmers of Bardoli against the unjust raising of taxes.</strong></td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<p><a href="https://www.google.com/url?q=https://indianexpress.com/article/india/moplah-rebellion-among-the-first-manifestations-of-talibani-mindset-says-bjps-ram-madhav-7461234/&amp;sa=D&amp;source=editors&amp;ust=1629451783533000&amp;usg=AOvVaw0XlDywFPkfGqlO_9nuC8Br" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Source: IE</strong></a></p>',
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	(int) 5 => object(Cake\ORM\Entity) {

		'article_id' => (int) 9304,
		'category_id' => (int) 21,
		'title' => 'India’s Flag Code Rules',
		'description' => '<h3>Why in News</h3>
<p>On 15<sup>th</sup> August, 2021, India celebrated its 75<sup>th</sup> Independence Day, and like every year the Prime Minister of India hoisted the National Flag at the Red Fort to commemorate the day.</p>
<h3>Key Points</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>History of Adopting India&rsquo;s Flag:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>1906:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The <strong>first national flag</strong>, which consisted of <strong>three horizontal stripes of red, yellow and green</strong>, is said to have been hoisted on <strong>7<sup>th</sup> August, 1906</strong>, at the Parsee Bagan Square, near Lower Circular Road, in Calcutta (now Kolkata).</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>1921:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Later, in 1921, <strong>freedom fighter Pingali Venkayya</strong> met <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/mahatma-gandhi-jayanti" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Mahatma Gandhi</strong></a> and proposed a basic design of the flag, consisting of two red and green bands.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>1931:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>After undergoing several changes, the <strong>Tricolour was adopted as our national flag at a Congress Committee meeting</strong> in Karachi in 1931.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>1947:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The <strong>Indian flag was adopted</strong> in its <strong>present form</strong> during a meeting of the Constituent Assembly held on <strong>22<sup>nd</sup> July, 1947</strong>.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Rules Governing the Tricolour:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>The Emblems and Names (Prevention of Improper Use) Act, 1950:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>It restricts <strong>the use of the national flag</strong>, the coat-of-arms used by a government department, the official seal of the President or Governor, the pictorial representation of Mahatma Gandhi and the Prime Minister, and the Ashoka Chakra.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>The Prevention of Insults to National Honour Act, 1971:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>It <strong>prohibits the desecration of or insult to the country&rsquo;s national symbols</strong>, including the national flag, the Constitution, the national anthem and the Indian map.</li>
<li>A person who is convicted for the <strong>following offences under the Act is disqualified to contest in the elections to the Parliament and state legislature for 6 years.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Offence of insulting the National Flag,</li>
<li>Offence of insulting the Constitution of India,</li>
<li>Offence of preventing the singing of the National Anthem.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>The Flag Code of India, 2002:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>It<strong> allowed the unrestricted display of the Tricolour</strong> as long as the honour and dignity of the flag were being respected.</li>
<li>The <strong>flag code did not replace the pre-existing rules</strong> governing the correct display of the flag.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>It was, however, an<strong> effort to bring together all the previous laws, conventions and practices.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>It is <strong>divided into three parts</strong> &mdash; a general description of the tricolour, rules on display of the flag by public and private bodies and educational institutions, and rules for display of the flag by governments and government bodies.</li>
<li>It mentions that the <strong>tricolour cannot be used for commercial purposes</strong>, and cannot be dipped in salute to any person or thing.</li>
<li>Moreover, the flag should not be used as a festoon, or for any kind of decoration purposes.</li>
<li>For official display,<strong> only flags that conform to the specifications</strong> as laid down by the<a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/bureau-of-indian-standards-bis-act-2016" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong> Bureau of Indian Standards</strong></a> and bearing their mark can be used.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Part IV-A of the Constitution:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The <strong>Part IV-A of the Constitution (which consists of only one Article 51-A)</strong> specifies the eleven Fundamental Duties.</li>
<li>According to <strong>Article 51A (a)</strong>, it shall be the duty of every citizen of India to abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National Flag and the National Anthem.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/explained-indias-flag-code-and-rules-governing-display-of-the-tricolour-7453678/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Source: IE</strong></a></p>',
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		'article_id' => (int) 9184,
		'category_id' => (int) 21,
		'title' => 'Quit India Movement',
		'description' => '<h3>Why in News</h3>
<p>On<strong> 8<sup>th</sup> Aug 2021,</strong> India completed <strong>79 years of Quit India Movement</strong> also known as <strong>August Kranti.</strong></p>
<h3>Key Points</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>About:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>On <strong>8<sup>th</sup> August 1942, <a href="/to-the-points/paper4/gandhian-ideologies" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Mahatma Gandhi</a></strong> gave a clarion call to end the British rule and <strong>launched the Quit India Movement at the session of the All-India Congress Committee in Mumbai.</strong></li>
<li>Gandhiji gave the call <strong>&ldquo;Do or Die&rdquo;</strong> in his speech delivered <strong>at the Gowalia Tank Maidan, now popularly known as August Kranti Maidan.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Aruna Asaf Ali</strong> popularly known as the<strong> 'Grand Old Lady'</strong> of the Independence Movement is known for <strong>hoisting the Indian flag</strong> at the Gowalia Tank Maidan in Mumbai during the Quit India Movement.</li>
<li>The <strong>slogan &lsquo;Quit India&rsquo;</strong> was <strong>coined by Yusuf Meherally,</strong> a socialist and trade unionist who also served as Mayor of Mumbai.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Meherally had<strong> also coined the slogan &ldquo;Simon Go Back&rdquo;.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Causes:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Failure of <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/quit-india-movement-1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Cripps Mission</a>:</strong> The <strong>immediate cause</strong> for the movement was the collapse of Cripps Mission.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li><strong>About:</strong> Under <strong>Stafford Cripps,</strong> the <strong>mission was sent to resolve the Indian question</strong> of a new constitution and self-government.</li>
<li><strong>Reasons Behind Cripps Mission:</strong> Japanese aggression in South-East Asia, keenness of British Government to secure the full participation of India in the war, mounting pressure from China and the United States, as well as from the Labour Party in Britain, <strong>led British Prime Minister Winston Churchill to send the Cripps Mission to India in March 1942.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Reasons for Collapse:</strong> It failed because it <strong>offered India not complete freedom</strong> but the <strong>Dominion Status to India,</strong> along with the partition.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Involvement of India in World War II without prior consultation with the leaders:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The British assumption of unconditional support from India to British in <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/world-war-ii" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>World War II</strong> </a>was not taken well by the <strong><a href="/to-the-points/paper1/important-indian-national-congress-sessions" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Indian National Congress</a>.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Prevalence of anti-British Sentiment:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The <strong>anti-British sentiments</strong> and <strong>demand for full-independence</strong> had gained popularity among indian masses.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Centralisation of Many Small Movements:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The two decades of <strong>mass movement</strong> which were being <strong>conducted on a much more radical tone</strong> under the leadership of the various associated and affiliated bodies of the Congress, like <strong>All India Kisan Sabha, Forward Bloc etc.</strong> had already <strong>prepared the ground for the movement.</strong></li>
<li>There were militant outbursts happening at several places in the country which got channelized with the Quit India Movement.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Shortage of Essential Commodities:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The economy was also in shatters as a result of World War II.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Demands:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The demand was<strong> to end the British rule in India</strong> with immediate effect to get the cooperation of Indians in World War-II against fascism.</li>
<li>There was a demand to <strong>form a provisional government</strong> after the withdrawal of the Britishers.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Phases:</strong> The movement had three phases:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>First Phase, urban revolt,</strong> marked by strikes, boy&shy;cott and picketing, which were quickly suppressed.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>There were strikes and demonstrations all over the country and workers provided the support by not working in the factories.</li>
<li>Gandhiji was soon imprisoned at Aga Khan Palace in Pune and almost all leaders were arrested.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>In the <strong>second phase,</strong> the <strong>focus shifted to the countryside,</strong> which witnessed a major peasant rebellion, marked by destruction of communication sys&shy;tems, such as railway tracks and stations, telegraph wires and poles, attacks on government buildings or any other visible symbol of colo&shy;nial authority.</li>
<li>The<strong> last phase</strong> witnessed the <strong>formation of national governments or parallel governments</strong> in isolated pockets (Ballia, Tamluk, Satara etc.)</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Successes of the Movement</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Rise of Future Leaders:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Underground activities were taken by leaders that included Ram Manohar Lohia, J.P. Narayan, Aruna Asaf Ali, Biju Patnaik, Sucheta Kriplani, etc which later emerged as prominent leaders.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Women Participation:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Women took active participation in the movement. Female leaders like Usha Mehta helped set up an underground radio station which led to the awakening about the movement.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Rise of Nationalism:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>A <strong>greater sense of unity and brotherhood emerged</strong> due to the Quit India Movement. Many students dropped out of schools and colleges, people gave up their jobs and withdrew money from the banks.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Paved the way for Independence:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>While the <strong>Quit India campaign was crushed in 1944,</strong> with the British refusing to grant immediate independence, saying it could happen only after the war had ended, they came to the important realization that India was ungovernable in the long run due to the cost of World War II.</li>
<li>It <strong>changed the nature of political negotiations with British,</strong> ultimately paving the way for India's independence.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Failure of the Movement</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Brutal Repression:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong>movement saw violence</strong> at some places which was not premeditated.</li>
<li>The movement was<strong> violently suppressed by the British</strong> &ndash; people were shot, lathi-charged, villages burnt and enormous fines imposed.</li>
<li>Over 1,00,000 people were arrested and the government resorted to violence in order to crush the agitation.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Lack of Support:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Muslim League, the Communist Party of India and the Hindu Mahasabha did not support the movement.</strong> The Indian bureaucracy also did not support the movement.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The League was not in favour of the British leaving India without partitioning the country first.</li>
<li>The Communist party supported the British since they were allied with the Soviet Union.</li>
<li>The Hindu Mahasabha openly opposed the call for the Quit India Movement and boycotted it officially under the apprehension that the movement would create internal disorder and would endanger internal security during the war.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Meanwhile, Subhas Chandra Bose, organised the<a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/subhash-chandra-bose" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong> Indian National Army</strong></a> and the Azad Hind government from outside the country.</li>
<li>Many <strong>Congress members like C Rajagopalachari resigned</strong> from the provincial legislature as they did not favour Mahatma Gandhi's idea.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://pib.gov.in/PressReleaseIframePage.aspx?PRID=1743819" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Source: PIB</strong></a></p>',
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		'article_id' => (int) 9045,
		'category_id' => (int) 26,
		'title' => 'Movement of the Working Class',
		'description' => '<h3>Introduction</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Rise of Working Class:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The modern working class <strong>arose in India with the introduction of capitalism in the 19<sup>th</sup> century</strong> under colonial dispensation.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>It was a modern working class in the sense of relatively modern organisation of labour and a relatively free market for labour.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>This development was due to the establishment of modern factories, railways, dockyards and construction activities relating to roads and buildings.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li><strong>Plantations and railways were the initial enterprises</strong> to herald the era of colonial capitalism in Indian subcontinent.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Industrialisation in India:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Port cities <strong>Bombay, Calcutta and Madras</strong> became the<strong> centres of the capitalist economy.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Cotton mills</strong> in Bombay,<strong> jute mills</strong> in Calcutta, and several factories in Madras were set up in the late 19<sup>th</sup> century. Similar developments took place in the cities of Ahmedabad, Kanpur, Solapur and Nagpur.</li>
<li>The <strong>first jute mill of India</strong> was set up in <strong>Calcutta in 1854</strong> by a Scottish entrepreneur.</li>
<li>The<strong> ownership of the cotton mills was with the Indian</strong> entrepreneurs, while that of <strong>jute was with the foreigners</strong> for a long time.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Workers&rsquo; Movement in Pre-Independence India</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Initial Attempts to Improve Workers&rsquo; Conditions:</strong> Attempts were made in 1870-1880 to better the working conditions of the workers by legislation.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Till the <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/swadeshi-and-boycott-movement" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Swadeshi surge of 1903-08</strong></a>, there was <strong>no concerted effort</strong> to better the working conditions of the labour.</li>
<li>Again between 1915-1922, there was <strong>resurgence of workers&rsquo; movement</strong> along with the <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/bal-gangadhar-tilak" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Home Rule Movement</strong></a> and the <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/khilafat-and-non-cooperation-movement" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Non-Cooperation Movement.</strong></a></li>
<li>The earlier attempts to improve the economic conditions of the workers were in the nature of <strong>philanthropic efforts which were isolated, sporadic and aimed at specific local grievances.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Workers&rsquo; Movements before the Emergence of Trade Unions: </strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Plantation and Mine Workers:</strong> The plantation and mine workers were heavily exploited but their conditions <strong>did not attract much attention initially</strong> as they were away from the notice of early social reformers, journalists and public activists.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Despite this isolation, the plantation workers,<strong> on their own, registered their protests against the exploitation and oppression</strong> by the plantation owners and managers.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Industrial Workers:</strong> The <strong>cotton and jute industry</strong> workers were <strong>more in the public gaze.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The early social workers and <strong>philanthropists were also involved</strong> with them facilitating better organisational work as well as <strong>better reporting and public support. </strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Formation of Organisations:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>In Bengal, <strong>Sasipada Banerjee</strong> founded the<strong> &lsquo;Working Men&rsquo;s Club&rsquo;</strong> in 1870 and started publishing a monthly journal in Bengali entitled<em><strong> &lsquo;Bharat Shramjibi&rsquo;</strong> </em>in 1874.</li>
<li>The <a href="/to-the-points/paper4/raja-ram-mohan-roy#:~:text=Raja%20Ram%20Mohan%20Roy%20founded,and%20reading%20of%20the%20scriptures." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Brahmo Samaj</strong> </a>formed the<strong> &lsquo;Working Men&rsquo;s Mission&rsquo;</strong> in Bengal in 1878 to impart moral education among the workers. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>It also established the <strong>&lsquo;Working Men&rsquo;s Institution&rsquo;</strong> in 1905.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>In 1890 in Maharashtra, <strong>N.M. Lokhandey</strong> established the <strong>&lsquo;Bombay Millhands&rsquo;</strong> Association&rsquo;, and in 1898, he started publishing a journal entitled <em><strong>&lsquo;Dinbandhu&rsquo;</strong></em> in Marathi. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The <strong>Bombay Millhands Defence Association</strong> formed by <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/bal-gangadhar-tilak" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Bal Gangadhar Tilak</strong></a> in 1908.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>However, these bodies were primarily <strong>interested in welfare activities</strong> and did <strong>not have much organisational base</strong> among the workers.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Emergence and Growth of Trade Unions:</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Cause of Emergence:</strong> The trade unions emerged in India after <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/world-war-i-1" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>World War I</strong></a>. The main factors that led to the emergence of trade unions include:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Rising prices of essential commodities.</li>
<li>Decline in the real wages of workers.</li>
<li>Increase in the demand for the industrial products resulting in the expansion of Indian industries.</li>
<li><a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/mahatma-gandhi-jayanti" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Gandhi's</strong></a> call for the <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/khilafat-and-non-cooperation-movement" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Non-Cooperation Movement</strong></a>.</li>
<li>The Russian Revolution.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Formation of Trade Unions:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong>Madras Labour Union,</strong> formed in April 1918, is generally<strong> considered to be the first trade union in India. </strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li><strong>B.P. Wadia,</strong> a nationalist leader and an associate of <strong>Annie Besant,</strong> was instrumental for its organisation.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The<strong> Textile Labour Association,</strong> also known as <em><strong>Majur Mahajan Sangh,</strong></em> was established in Ahmedabad in 1920. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The union was formed following the agitation of mill workers of Ahmedabad demanding for a bonus to compensate for the rise in prices.</li>
<li>This union worked along Gandhian lines and became very strong over the years.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC):</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>A New Edge to the Workers&rsquo; Movement:</strong> The most important development in the workers&rsquo; movement was the formation of<strong> All-India Trade Union Congress</strong> under the <strong>leadership of Bal Gangadhar Tilak</strong> and <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/lala-lajpat-rai" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Lala Lajpat Rai.</strong></a><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Since then the working class movement became strong and by 1930 onwards, an ideological tone was added to the movement.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Cause of Formation:</strong> Many people connected with labour realised that there was a <strong>need for a central organisation of labour</strong> to coordinate the works of the trade unions all over India.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The<strong> formation of the <a href="/important-institutions/drishti-specials-important-institutions-international-institution/international-labour-organization" target="_blank" rel="noopener">International Labour Organisation (ILO)</a></strong> in 1919 acted as a catalyst for it.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The members selected from AITUC represented the Indian Labour at the ILO.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Leaders Involved: Bal Gangadhar Tilak, N.M.Joshi, B.P.Wadia, Diwan Chamanlall, Lala Lajpat Rai and Joseph Baptista</strong> were the <strong>main leaders behind the formation</strong> of AITUC.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Lala Lajpat Rai <strong>became the first president</strong> of the AITUC and Joseph Baptista its <strong>vice president.</strong></li>
<li>Lajpat Rai was the <strong>first to link capitalism with imperialism:</strong> &ldquo;imperialism and militarism are the twin children of capitalism&rdquo;.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Ideology of AITUC:</strong> In the beginning, the AITUC was influenced by social democratic ideas of the British Labour Party.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Gandhian philosophy of non-violence, trusteeship and class-collaboration had great influence on AITUC.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>The Trade Union Act, 1926:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The act recognised trade unions as legal associations.</li>
<li>It laid down conditions for registration and regulation of trade union activities.</li>
<li>It secured civil and criminal immunity for trade unions from prosecution for legitimate activities, but also put some restrictions on their political activities.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Role of Communists:</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Emergence of Communists and CPI:</strong> The most important phenomenon in the field of labour movement in India was the emergence of the communists.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The communist ideology, deriving from the theories of <strong>Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin,</strong> assigns the working class the central place.</li>
<li>The <strong>Communist Party of India (CPI),</strong> formed in Soviet Union in 1920, soon after its formation, <strong>became active in the labour movements.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Role in the Movements:</strong> The communists organised the workers in cotton mills of Bombay and jute mills of Calcutta, besides many other industries and led militant struggles.</li>
<li><strong>Role in Splitting the AITUC:</strong> By 1928-29, the communists gained a marginal majority in the AITUC.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Splitting the Moderates:</strong> In the<strong> tenth session of the AITUC held in Nagpur,</strong> the communists<strong> called for the dissociation from the ILO</strong> and<strong> association with the League against Imperialism.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The moderate and reformist group were against the idea and consequently left the AITUC and formed the <strong>Indian Federation of Trade Unions (IFTU).</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Splitting the Nationalists:</strong> Another split occurred in 1931 due to divergence between the nationalist and communist opinions.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The <strong>communists severely criticised Gandhi</strong> and <strong>condemned the <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/dr-b-r-ambedkar-s-63rd-mahaparinirvan-diwas" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Round Table Conference</a> of 1931</strong> in which the <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/important-indian-national-congress-sessions" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Indian National Congress</strong></a> was participating.</li>
<li>Unable to secure a majority for this condemnation, the <strong>communists split from the nationalists</strong> and formed the <strong>Red Trade Union Congress (RTUC).</strong></li>
<li>By 1931, there were three national federations of trade unions &ndash; the AITUC, the IFTU and the RTUC.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Reunion of Trade Unions:</strong> It was felt by many trade union leaders that the division in their ranks was creating problems for their political and economic struggles.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>As a result, the <strong>Railway Unions and some unaffiliated unions united with the IFTU</strong> to form the <strong>National Federation of Trade Unions (NFTU)</strong> in 1933.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Consequently, the<strong> RTUC, and the AITUC also united</strong> in 1935 and the name AITUC was retained for the unified organisation.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Workers&rsquo; Movement in Post-Independence India</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Formation of New Unions:</strong> The post-independence period saw the formation of a number of trade unions such as <strong>Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS)</strong> and <strong>Centre of Indian Trade Unions (CITU )</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>CITU was formed by Communist Party of India (Marxist), splitting from AITUC.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Legislations Framed:</strong> The <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/labour-laws-diluted#:~:text=Industrial%20Units%20will%20be%20exempted,the%20action%20taken%20by%20industries." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Industrial Dispute Act, 1947</strong></a> and <strong>Labour Relations Bill and Trade Unions Bills, 1949</strong> were introduced.</li>
<li><strong>Decline in Strikes:</strong> Between 1947-1960, the condition of the working class improved and there was a decline in the number of strikes.</li>
<li><strong>Economic Recession:</strong> The period of late 1960s saw decline in the wages of the working class; as a result, <strong>disputes in the industrial front increased.</strong></li>
<li><strong>New Economic Policy, 1991:</strong> It introduced <strong>LPG</strong> (Liberalisation, Privatisation and Globalisation).
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Liberalisation <strong>deteriorated the bargaining position of the workers</strong> vis-a-vis capital.</li>
<li>The policy provided <strong>no statutory minimum wages</strong> for labour.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>It gave the employers the <strong>complete right to hire and fire.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Weaknesses of the Movement</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Incomplete Coverage:</strong> A large section of the working class, the <strong>unorganised sector, was left outside the fold of trade unions.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The unions took the relatively easy path of pressing the demands of those who could be easily organised or whose demands were likely to be heard by the government.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Multiplicity of Trade Unions:</strong> Post independence, the trade unions representing workers in the country have multiplied.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Multiplicity of unions in a capitalist system <strong>keeps the working class fragmented and vulnerable to all forms of pressures.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Irresponsive Trade Unions:</strong> Trade unions in the country had not been responsive to the problems of the working class in the country. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Unions lay fragmented which produced bitter rivalry among them and hence very often they failed to respond to the issues of the working class.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Disunity among the Workers:</strong> The<strong> industrial working class of the country did not ally with the peasants</strong> and other sections of the society in collective direct action on political issues'.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>This reflected the <strong>lack of political consciousness</strong> among the working class.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Negligence for Marginalised Sections:</strong> Trade unions in the organised sector <strong>overlooked the problems of women workers and workers belonging to the socially oppressed groups.</strong></li>
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		'article_id' => (int) 8978,
		'category_id' => (int) 28,
		'title' => 'Cooperative Movement in India',
		'description' => '<h3>Cooperatives in India</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Definition:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong>International Cooperative Alliance (ICA)</strong> defines a <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/ministry-of-co-operation-a-new-push-to-co-operatives" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Cooperative</strong></a> as &ldquo;an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations through a jointly-owned and democratically-controlled enterprise.&rdquo;</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Constitutional Provisions:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong>Constitution (97<sup>th</sup> Amendment) Act, 2011</strong> added a new Part IXB right after Part IXA (Municipals) regarding the cooperatives working in India.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The word<strong> &ldquo;cooperatives&rdquo;</strong> was added after<strong> &ldquo;unions and associations&rdquo;</strong> in<strong> Article 19(1)(c)</strong> under<strong> Part III of the Constitution.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>This enables all the citizens to <strong>form cooperatives by giving it the status of <a href="/to-the-points/Paper2/fundamental-rights-part-1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">fundamental right</a> of citizens.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>A new<strong> Article 43B</strong> was added in the <a href="/to-the-points/Paper2/directive-principles-of-state-policy-dpsp#:~:text=Directive%20Principles%20are%20affirmative%20directions,is%20not%20subordinate%20to%20FRs." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Directive Principles of State Policy</strong></a> (Part IV) regarding the &ldquo;promotion of cooperative societies&rdquo;.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Genesis of Cooperative Movement in India</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Causes of the Movement:</strong> The Cooperative Movement in India was born out of the <strong>distress and turmoil that prevailed in the last quarter of the 19<sup>th</sup> century.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <a href="/loksabha-rajyasabha-discussions/in-depth-industrial-revolution-4-0#:~:text=Now%20a%20Fourth%20Industrial%20Revolution,%2C%20digital%2C%20and%20biological%20spheres." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Industrial Revolution</strong> </a>had given a death blow to village industries and driven people to agriculture, the only avenue of employment and livelihood.</li>
<li>The consequent <strong>sub-division and fragmentation of holdings</strong> had made<strong> agriculture an uneconomic proposition.</strong></li>
<li>Other factors such as the <strong>rigidity of land revenue collection, uncertainty of rainfall and consequently lesser crop production</strong> compelled the farmers to approach the money-lenders. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The money lenders advanced money either by purchasing the crop at a throwaway price or by charging very high rates of interest.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>All these factors emphasised the need for the provision of cheap credit through an alternative agency.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Informal Cooperatives in India:</strong> Even before formal cooperative structures came into being through the passing of a law, the practice of the concept of cooperation and cooperative activities were prevalent in several parts of India. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Some of them were named as <strong>Devarai or Vanarai, Chit Funds, Kuries, Bhishies, Phads.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>In the <strong>Madras</strong> Presidency were organised<strong> &lsquo;Nidhis&rsquo; or Mutual-Loan Associations.</strong></li>
<li>In the <strong>Punjab,</strong> a society on cooperative lines was started in 1891 for <strong>controlling the common land of the village</strong> for the benefit of the co-sharers.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>All these efforts were purely<strong> voluntary and strictly non-official.</strong></li>
<li>The<strong> first official step</strong> was taken when <strong>Sir William Wedderburn</strong> made, after the <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/peasant-movements-in-india" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Deccan riots</strong></a>, the proposal for the <strong>establishment of agricultural banks</strong> as a remedy against rural indebtedness.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Cooperative Movement in Pre-Independence Era</h3>
<p><strong>Initial Stage of Cooperative Movement (1904-11)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>First Cooperative Act in India:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong>Indian Famine Commission (1901)</strong> induced the government to set up a committee under the presidency of <strong>Sir Edward Law</strong> to report on the introduction of cooperative societies in India.</li>
<li>The Committee reported favorably in 1903 and the first <strong>Cooperative Credit Societies Act was passed in 1904. </strong></li>
<li><strong>Salient Features of the Act:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Any ten persons living in the same village or town or belonging to the same class or tribe could form a cooperative credit society.</li>
<li><strong>Societies were classified as Rural and Urban</strong> depending if the majority of the total membership (80%) was agricultural or non-agricultural.</li>
<li><strong>Rural society was not permitted to distribute profits,</strong> but in the case of urban societies, profits could be distributed after carrying 25% of the net profits to the Reserve Fund.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Drawbacks of the Act:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The act provided <strong>no legal protection to non-credit societies.</strong></li>
<li>It also made <strong>no provision for mobilising urban savings</strong> for financing agricultural operations.</li>
<li>The <strong>classification</strong> of societies into urban and rural was found to be <strong>arbitrary, unscientific, and highly inconvenient.</strong></li>
<li>Many provisions of the Act of 1904 became a hindrance to the further spread of the movement.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Modification Stage of Cooperative Movement (1912-1918)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>The Cooperative Societies Act of 1912:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The defects of the 1904 Act were remedied when the Cooperative Societies Act, 1912 was enacted.</li>
<li><strong>Salient Features: </strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li><strong>Any society, credit or otherwise, could be registered</strong> which had as its objective, the promotion of the economic interest of its members.</li>
<li>A federal society like the <strong>Central Bank or union could be registered.</strong></li>
<li>No member could have more than 1/5 of the total share capital or hold share exceeding Rs. 1,000 in such a society.</li>
<li>The societies were <strong>granted exemption from compulsory registration</strong> and from the <strong>payment of income tax and stamp duties.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Maclagan Committee:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In 1915, a committee headed by <strong>Sir Edward Maclagan,</strong> was appointed to study and report whether the cooperative movement was proceeding on economically and financially sound lines.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The committee observed that <strong>illiteracy</strong> and <strong>ignorance of the masses, misappropriation of funds, rampant nepotism, inordinate delay in granting loans</strong> and<strong> viewing the cooperative movement as a Government movement</strong> were some of the glaring defects of the cooperative movement.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>The committee made the following suggestions:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>All members should be made aware of the cooperative principles.</li>
<li>Honesty should be the main criterion for taking a loan.</li>
<li>Dealings should be strictly confined to the members only.</li>
<li>Applications should be carefully scrutinized before advancing loans and there should be careful follow up for effective utilization of loans.</li>
<li>One member-one vote should be strictly followed</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>These recommendations could not be put into practice because of the <strong><a href="/to-the-points/paper1/world-war-i-1" target="_blank" rel="noopener">First World War</a>.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Expansion Stage of the Cooperative Movement (1919-29)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Montague-Chelmsford Reforms:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Through the<strong><a href="/to-the-points/paper1/government-of-india-act-1919#:~:text=Montagu-Chelmsford%20Reforms%20which%20came,as%20Provincial%20levels%20of%20Government." target="_blank" rel="noopener"> Montague- Chelmsford Reforms of 1919</a>, co-operation became a provincial subject</strong> which gave further impetus to the movement.</li>
<li>Various states passed their own Acts to make the Cooperative Movement a successful one.</li>
<li>The <strong>membership of the Cooperative societies increased</strong> considerably during this period.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Economic Depression:</strong> The year 1929 witnessed the<strong> Great Economic Depression.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong>prices of the agricultural commodities fell down</strong> to a remarkable extent.</li>
<li><strong>Unemployment</strong> along with other economic crises grew.</li>
<li>The <strong>agriculturists could not pay back the loans</strong> of the societies.</li>
<li>Over dues increased unexpectedly and <strong>cooperative societies were ruined.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Restructuring Stage of Cooperative Societies (1930-1946)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Appointment of Committees:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Various committees were appointed in<strong> Madras, Bombay, Travancore, Mysore, Gwalior and Punjab</strong> for examining the possibilities of restructuring the Cooperative societies.</li>
<li>In 1937 the <strong>Congress Ministry</strong> came to power in many states and revived interest in organising the cooperative movement.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Role of World War II:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The abnormal conditions created by the <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/world-war-ii" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Second World War</strong></a> led to<strong> far-reaching developments in the Cooperative Movement.</strong></li>
<li>Prices of agricultural commodities began to rise, rural farmers got extra economic gains and non- credit societies like marketing, production and consumer societies increased rapidly.</li>
<li>The <strong>All India Cooperative Planning Committee in 1945</strong> also gave a fillip to the growth of the Cooperative Movement.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Gandhian Socialist Philosophy regarding Cooperatives</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Cooperation for Socialist Society:</strong> Cooperation according to <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/mahatma-gandhi-jayanti" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Gandhiji</strong></a> was <strong>necessary for creation of a socialistic society and complete decentralization of power.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He was of the opinion that cooperation was one of the important means to empower people.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Phoenix Settlement:</strong> In South Africa, Mahatma Gandhi instituted the<strong> 'Phoenix Settlement'</strong> as a cooperative in a <strong>socialistic pattern.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Its objective was to cultivate the three acres of land given to each member and to <strong>stop the emergence of a new class of absentee landowners. </strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Tolstoy Farm:</strong> He established the <strong>Tolstoy Farm as a rehabilitation cooperative settlement</strong> for the families affected by the South African freedom struggle during the period. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He fully<strong> believed in Tolstoy's socialistic philosophy. </strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Cooperatives for Peasantry:</strong> On return from South Africa, Gandhiji visited the countryside of India and realized the bankruptcy and distress of Indian peasantry oppressed by excess taxation, rack renting, illegal exaction etc. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He observed that the closest cooperation amongst the peasants is an absolute necessity.</li>
<li>Any industry based on agricultural produce such as cotton, sugar, oil seed, wheat etc. should be on a cooperative basis so that the producers could secure the best value for their output.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Cooperative Movement After Independence</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Part of Mixed Economy:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>After independence, the nation adopted the approach of planned economic development for establishment of a mixed economy consisting of three sectors namely Public, Private and Cooperative Sectors.</li>
<li>Cooperatives were visualized to play the role of a<strong> balancing factor between public and private sectors.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Part of FYPs:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>After independence, cooperatives became an integral part of<strong> Five-Year Plans (FYPs).</strong></li>
<li>Pandit <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-editorials/legacy-of-jawahar-lal-nehru" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Jawaharlal Nehru</strong></a> considered cooperatives as one of the three pillars of Democracy, the other two being the <strong>Panchayat</strong> and the <strong>Schools.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>National Policy of Cooperatives:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In 1958, the<strong> National Development Council (NDC)</strong> had recommended a <strong>national policy on cooperatives</strong> and also for training of personnel and setting up of Cooperative Marketing Societies.</li>
<li>The Government of India announced a<strong> National Policy on Cooperatives</strong> in 2002.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Establishment of NCDC:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong><a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/Scheme%20to%20Promote%20Young%20Entrepreneurs%20in%20Cooperatives" target="_blank" rel="noopener">National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC)</a>,</strong> a <strong>statutory corporation,</strong> was set up under <strong>National Cooperative Development Corporation Act, 1962.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Committees Set up for Cooperatives:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The<strong> Rural Credit Survey Committee</strong> in 1954 recommended <strong>state participation in cooperatives at all levels.</strong></li>
<li>The<strong> S.T. Raja Committee</strong> was appointed by the Government of India to <strong>suggest amendments to the Cooperative Law.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The committee prepared a Model Act enabling state participation and appointment of Government nominees on the management of assisted Cooperative Societies.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Successful Cooperatives in India: </strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Agriculture and Allied Sectors: <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/sahakar-cooptube-ncdc-channel" target="_blank" rel="noopener">National Cooperative Development Corporation (NCDC)</a>, <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/honey-fpo-programme-nafed" target="_blank" rel="noopener">National Agricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of India (NAFED)</a>, <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/nano-urea-liquid-iffco" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Indian Farmers Fertilisers Cooperative Limited (IFFCO)</a>, AMUL</strong> and Co-operative Rural Development Trust (CORDET).</li>
<li><strong>Banking Sector: <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-editorials/co-operative-banking-in-india" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Punjab and Maharashtra Cooperative (PMC) Bank</a>,</strong> Bharat Cooperative Bank and Saraswat Cooperative Bank.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Issues Faced by the Cooperative Sector</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Excessive Cooperative Legislations:</strong> Cooperatives in India function in different sectors. Cooperatives is a<strong> State subject</strong> under the Constitution of India and State cooperative laws and their implementation vastly differ.</li>
<li><strong>Irresponsibility and Unaccountability:</strong> Serious inadequacies in governance including that related to Boards&rsquo; roles and responsibilities. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The people on the board are not held accountable for many inconveniences.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Lack of Recognition:</strong> A general lack of recognition of cooperatives as economic institutions both amongst the policy makers and public at large. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Inability to attract and retain competent professionals.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Lack of Capital Formation:</strong> Lack of efforts for capital formation particularly that concern enhancing member equity and member stake.</li>
<li><strong>Lack of Awareness:</strong> People are not well informed about the objectives of the Movement, rules and regulations of co-operative institutions.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Conclusion</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Cooperatives have a futuristic role of fostering collectivism and preserving the social capital base of the country.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Cooperatives are the best channels to keep the <strong>spirit of collectivism</strong> and <strong>democracy afloat.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The presence of a large network of social organizations, like cooperatives, would aid in the <strong>generation</strong> and<strong> utilization of social capital</strong> and <strong>&lsquo;greater the social capital, greater would be the possibility of development&rsquo;.</strong></li>
</ul>',
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		'article_id' => (int) 8967,
		'category_id' => (int) 21,
		'title' => 'Chandra Shekahr Azad',
		'description' => '<h3>Why in News</h3>
<p>On 23<sup>rd</sup> July, India paid tribute to the freedom fighter <strong>Chandra Shekahr Azad</strong> on his <strong>birth anniversary.</strong></p>
<h3>Key Points</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Birth:</strong> Azad was born on <strong>23<sup>rd</sup> July 1906</strong> in the<strong> Alirajpur district of Madhya Pradesh.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Early Life:</strong> Chandra Shekhar, then a 15-year-old student, joined a <a href="/mains-practice-question/question-208" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Non-Cooperation Movement</strong> </a>in December 1921. As a result, he was arrested.<a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1627125259_image2.png" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1627125259_image2.png" style="float: right;" caption="false" width="300" height="168" /></a><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>On being presented before a magistrate, he gave his name as<strong> "Azad" (The Free),</strong> his father's name as "Swatantrata" (Independence) and his residence as "Jail".</li>
<li>Therefore, he came to be known as <strong>Chandra Shekhar Azad.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Contribution to Freedom Movement:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Hindustan Republican Association:</strong> After the suspension of the non-cooperation movement in 1922 by Gandhi, Azad joined Hindustan Republican Association (HRA).<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>HRA was a revolutionary organization of India established in 1924 in East Bengal by <strong>Sachindra Nath Sanyal, Narendra Mohan Sen and Pratul Ganguly</strong> as an offshoot of <strong>Anushilan Samiti.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Members:</strong> Bhagat Singh, Chandra Shekhar Azad, Sukhdev, Ram Prasad Bismil, Roshan Singh, Ashfaqulla Khan, Rajendra Lahiri.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Kakori Conspiracy:</strong> Most of the fund collection for revolutionary activities was done through <strong>robberies of government property.</strong> In line with the same, Kakori Train Robbery near Kakori, Lucknow was done in<strong> 1925 by HRA.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The <strong>plan was executed</strong> by Chandrashekhar Azad, Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan, Rajendra Lahiri, and Manmathnath Gupta.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Hindustan Socialist Republican Association:</strong> HRA was later reorganised as the Hindustan Socialist Republican Army (HSRA).<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>It was established in <strong>1928</strong> at Feroz Shah Kotla in New Delhi by Chandrasekhar Azad, Ashfaqulla Khan, <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/martyrs-day" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Bhagat Singh</strong></a>, Sukhdev Thapar and Jogesh Chandra Chatterjee.</li>
<li>HSRA planned the <strong>shooting of J. P. Saunders,</strong> a British Policeman at Lahore in 1928 <strong>to avenge the killing of Lala Lajpat Rai.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Death:</strong> He died at <strong>Azad Park in Allahabad</strong> on 27<sup>th</sup> February 1931.</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://www.pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1640655" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Source: PIB</strong></a></p>',
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	(int) 10 => object(Cake\ORM\Entity) {

		'article_id' => (int) 8913,
		'category_id' => (int) 21,
		'title' => 'Tipu Sultan',
		'description' => '<h3>Why in News</h3>
<p>Recently, naming a garden on Tipu Sultan in Mumbai sparked a controversy.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1626764488_image2.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1626764488_image2.jpg" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="350" caption="false" /></a></p>
<h3>Key Points</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Brief Profile:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Born in<strong> November 1750,</strong> Tipu Sultan was <strong>Haidar Ali&rsquo;s son</strong> and a great warrior, also known as the <strong>Tiger of Mysore.</strong></li>
<li>He was<strong> a well educated man</strong> fluent in Arabic, Persian, Kanarese and Urdu.</li>
<li>Mysore had grown in strength under the leadership of powerful rulers like <strong>Haidar Ali (ruled from 1761 to 1782)</strong> and his famous son <strong>Tipu Sultan (ruled from 1782 to 1799).</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Tipu <strong>introduced a number of administrative innovations</strong> during his rule, including his <strong>coinage,</strong> a new <strong>Mauludi lunisolar calendar,</strong> and a <strong>new land revenue system</strong> which initiated the <strong>growth of Mysore silk industry.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Embracing<strong> western military methods</strong> like artillery and rockets <strong>alongside traditional Indian weapons</strong> including war elephants, he ensured his forces could <strong>overwhelm his Indian rivals and match the British armies</strong> sent against him.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Maintenance of Armed Forces:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He organised <strong>his army on the European model</strong> with Persian words of command.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Though he took the <strong>help of the French officers to train his soldiers,</strong> he never allowed them (French) to develop into a pressure group.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>He was well <strong>aware of the importance of a naval force.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>In 1796, he set up <strong>a Board of Admiralty and planned</strong> for a fleet of 22 battleships and 20 large frigates.</li>
<li>He<strong> established three dockyards</strong> at Mangalore, Wajedabad and Molidabad. However, <strong>his plans did not fructify.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Fought Against Marathas:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In<strong> 1767, Tipu commanded</strong> a corps of cavalry <strong>against the Marathas</strong> in the Carnatic (Karnataka) region of western India, and <strong>he fought against the Marathas</strong> on several occasions <strong>between 1775 and 1779.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Role in Anglo-Mysore Wars:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>British saw Haidar and Tipu as ambitious, arrogant and dangerous &ndash;</strong> rulers who had to be controlled and crushed.</li>
<li><strong><a href="/to-the-points/paper1/anglo-mysore-wars" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Four wars</a> were fought</strong> with Mysore <strong>(1767-69, 1780-84, 1790-92 and 1799).</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li><strong>1767-69:</strong> Treaty of Madras.</li>
<li><strong>1780-84:</strong> Treaty of Mangalore.</li>
<li><strong>1790-92:</strong> Treaty of Seringapatam.</li>
<li><strong>1799:</strong> Subsidiary Alliance.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Only in the last &ndash; the Battle of Seringapatam &ndash;</strong> did the Company ultimately win a victory.<strong> Tipu Sultan was killed</strong> defending his capital Seringapatam.</li>
<li><strong>Mysore was placed under the former ruling dynasty of the Wodeyars</strong> and a <strong>subsidiary alliance was imposed</strong> on the state.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Other Related Points:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He was<strong> also a patron of science and technology</strong> and is credited as the <strong>&lsquo;pioneer of rocket technology&rsquo; in India.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>He wrote<strong> a military manual (Fathul Mujahidin)</strong> explaining the operation of rockets.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Tipu was<strong> a great lover of democracy</strong> and <strong>a great diplomat</strong> who gave his<strong> support to the French soldiers</strong> at Seringapatam in setting up a <strong>Jacobin Club in 1797.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Tipu himself became <strong>a member of the Jacobin Club</strong> and allowed himself to be called <strong>Citizen Tipu.</strong></li>
<li>He <strong>planted the Tree of Liberty</strong> at Seringapatam.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Subsidiary Alliance</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In 1798, <strong>it was introduced by Wellesley</strong> in India, the ruler of the allying<strong> Indian state was compelled to pay a subsidy</strong> for the maintenance of British army in return for getting protection from the British against their enemies.</li>
<li>Those native princes or rulers<strong> who would enter into the Subsidiary Alliance were not free to declare war</strong> against any other power or enter into negotiations <strong>without the con&shy;sent of the British.</strong></li>
<li>The Subsidiary Alliance was a policy of non-interference in the internal affairs of the allied state, but this was a promise seldom kept by the British.</li>
<li>The payment of the arbitrarily-fixed and artificially-bloated subsidy invariably disrupted the economy of the state and impoverished its people.</li>
<li>On the other hand, the <strong>British could now maintain a large army</strong> at the cost of the Indian states.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>They controlled the defence and foreign relations of the protected ally, and had a powerful force stationed at the very heart of his lands.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Lord Wellesley <strong>signed his first Subsidiary Treaty with the Nizam of Hyderabad</strong> in 1798.</li>
<li>The <strong>Nawab of Avadh</strong> was forced to sign a Subsidiary Treaty<strong> in 1801.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Peshwa Baji Rao II (Maratha)</strong> signed the Subsidiary Treaty at Bassein <strong>in 1802.</strong></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p><a href="https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/bmc-govandi-garden-naming-tipu-sultan-controversy-bjp-shiv-sena-explained-7409324/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Source: IE</strong></a></p>',
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	(int) 11 => object(Cake\ORM\Entity) {

		'article_id' => (int) 8844,
		'category_id' => (int) 26,
		'title' => 'Peasant Movements in India',
		'description' => '<h3>Introduction</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Peasant Struggles:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In these struggles, the peasants emerged as the main force, fighting directly for their own demands.</li>
<li>The movements in the period between 1858 and 1914 tended to remain localised, disjointed and confined to particular grievances, contrary to the movements after 1914.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Causes of the Movements: </strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Peasant Atrocities:</strong> The peasants suffered from<strong> high rents, illegal levies, arbitrary evictions and unpaid labour</strong> in Zamindari areas. The Government levied heavy land revenue.</li>
<li><strong>Massive Losses for Indian Industries:</strong> The movements arose when <strong>British economic policies resulted in the ruin of traditional handicrafts and other small industries</strong> leading to change of ownership and overburdening of agrarian land, and massive debt and impoverishment of peasantry.</li>
<li><strong>Unfavourable Policies:</strong> The economic policies of British government used to <strong>protect the landlords and moneylenders and exploited the peasants.</strong> The peasants rose in revolt against this injustice on many occasions.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Rise of Peasant Organisations:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Between 1920 and 1940 peasant organisations arose.</li>
<li>The first organisation to be founded was the <strong>Bihar Provincial Kisan Sabha</strong> (1929) and in 1936 the<strong> All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS).</strong></li>
<li>In 1936, at the <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/important-indian-national-congress-sessions" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Lucknow session of the Congress</strong></a>, <strong>All India Kisan Sabha</strong> was formed with<strong> Sahajanand</strong> as its first president.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>It later issued a <strong>Kisan manifesto</strong> which demanded abolition of zamindari and occupancy rights for all tenants.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>19<sup>th</sup> Peasant Movements (Pre-Gandhian Phase)</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Indigo Rebellion (1859-62):</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In order to increase their profits, the European planters persuaded the peasants to plant Indigo instead of food crops.</li>
<li>The farmers were discontent growing indigo because: <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Low prices were offered for growing indigo.</li>
<li>Indigo was not lucrative.</li>
<li>Indigo planting decreased the fertility of the soil.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The peasants suffered at the hands of the traders and the middleman. Consequently, they launched a movement for non cultivation of indigo in Bengal.</li>
<li>They were<strong> supported by the press and the missionaries. </strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li><strong>Harish Chandra Mukherjee,</strong> a Bengali Journalist, described the plight of peasants of Bengal in his newspaper <strong>&lsquo;The Hindu Patriot&rsquo;. </strong></li>
<li><strong>Dinabandhu Mitra,</strong> Bengali writer and dramatist, in his play<strong> &lsquo;Nil Darpan&rsquo;</strong> depicted the treatment of the Indian peasantry by the indigo planters. It was first published in 1860. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>His play created a huge controversy which was later banned by the East India Company to control the agitation among the Indians.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The government appointed an <strong>Indigo Commission</strong> and issued an order in November 1860, notifying that it was illegal to force the ryots to cultivate indigo. <strong>This marked the victory for the peasants. </strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Pabna Movement (1870s-80s):</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In larger parts of Eastern <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/bengal-partition" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Bengal</strong></a>, landlords forcefully collected rents and land taxes, often enhanced for the poor peasants.</li>
<li>The peasants were also prevented from acquiring<strong> Occupancy Right under Act X of 1859.</strong></li>
<li>In May 1873 an <strong>Agrarian League was formed in the Yusufshahi Pargana</strong> of Pabna district, Patna (East Bengal).<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Rent strikes were organised, funds were raised and the struggle spread throughout Patna and to other districts of East Bengal.</li>
<li>The struggle was <strong>mainly legal resistance and little violence.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The discontent continued till 1885 when the Government by the <strong>Bengal Tenancy Act of 1885</strong> enhanced the occupancy rights.</li>
<li>The struggle was supported by <strong><a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/bankim-chandra-chattopadhyay" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Bankim Chandra Chatterjee</a>, R.C. Dutt </strong>and the<strong> Indian Association </strong>under <strong>Surendranath Banerjea. </strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Deccan Riots (1875):</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Deccan peasants uprising was directed mainly against the excesses of the <strong>Marwari</strong> and <strong>Gujarati money lenders.</strong></li>
<li>The ryots suffered heavy taxation under the <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/land-revenue-systems-in-british-india#:~:text=Under%20the%20Ryotwari%20system%2C%20the,as%20they%20paid%20the%20rent." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Ryotwari system</strong></a>. The land revenue was also raised by 50% in 1867.</li>
<li><strong>Social Boycott:</strong> In 1874, the ryots organised a<strong> social boycott movement</strong> against the moneylenders.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>They refused to buy from the moneylenders&rsquo; shops and cultivate their fields.</li>
<li>The barbers, washermen, and shoemakers refused to serve them.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>This social boycott spread rapidly to the villages of Poona, Ahmednagar, Solapur and Satara and was transformed into agrarian riots with systematic attacks on the moneylenders&rsquo; houses and shops.</li>
<li>The Government succeeded in repressing the movement. As a conciliatory measure, the <strong>Deccan Agriculturists Relief Act</strong> was passed in 1879.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>20<sup>th</sup> Century Peasant Movements (Gandhian Phase)</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Champaran Satyagraha (1917):</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The peasantry on the indigo plantations in the <strong>Champaran</strong> district of Bihar was excessively oppressed by the European planters and compelled to grow indigo on at least 3/20<sup>th</sup> of their land and sell it at prices fixed by the planters.</li>
<li>In 1917, <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/mahatma-gandhi-jayanti#:~:text=2nd%20October%202020%20was,of%20the%20Nation%20%2D%20Mahatma%20Gandhi.&amp;text=Gandhi%20was%20a%20social%20reformist,of%20nonviolent%20resistance%20called%20Satyagrah." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Mahatma Gandhi</strong></a> reached Champaran and began to conduct a detailed inquiry into the condition of the peasantry.</li>
<li>He defied the orders of district officials for leaving Champaran.</li>
<li>In June 1917, the Government appointed an enquiry committee with Gandhiji as one of the members. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The enactment of the <strong>Champaran Agrarian Act, 1918</strong> freed the tenants from the special imposts levied by the indigo planters.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Kheda Satyagraha (1918):</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It was chiefly <strong>directed against the Government.</strong></li>
<li>In 1918, the crops failed in the <strong>Kheda district of Gujarat</strong> but the government refused to remit land revenue and insisted on its full collection.</li>
<li>Gandhiji along with<a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/statue-of-unity-1#:~:text=Sardar%20Patel%20is%20credited%20with,tallest%20statue%20in%20the%20world." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong> Sardar Vallabhai Patel</strong></a> supported the peasants and advised them to withhold payment of revenues till their demand for its remission was met.</li>
<li>The satyagraha lasted till June 1918. The Government conceded the demands of the peasants.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Moplah Rebellion (1921):</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong><a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/moplah-uprising#:~:text=The%20Revolt%3A%20Fuelled%20by%20the,British%20and%20the%20Hindu%20landlords." target="_blank" rel="noopener">Moplahs</a> were the Muslim tenants</strong> inhabiting the Malabar region where most of the landlords were Hindus.</li>
<li>Their grievances centred around<strong> lack of security of tenure, high rents, renewal fees</strong> and other oppressive exactions.</li>
<li>The Moplah movement merged with the ongoing <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/khilafat-and-non-cooperation-movement#:~:text=Introduction,%2Dviolence%20and%20non%2Dcooperation." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Khilafat agitation.</strong></a> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Mahatma Gandhi, <strong>Shaukat Ali and <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/national-education-day#:~:text=Maulana%20Abul%20Kalam%20Azad%20%3A,fighter%2C%20scholar%20and%20eminent%20educationist.&amp;text=He%20was%20posthumously%20awarded%20Bharat,highest%20civilian%20award%20in%201992." target="_blank" rel="noopener">Maulana Abul Kalam Azad</a></strong> addressed Moplah meetings.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Many Hindus were seen by the Moplahs to be helping the British authorities. The anti-government and anti-landlord movement <strong>acquired communal overtones.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Communalisation isolated the Moplah from the Khilafat &amp; <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/khilafat-and-non-cooperation-movement#:~:text=Introduction,%2Dviolence%20and%20non%2Dcooperation." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Non-Cooperation Movement.</strong></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The movement was called off by December 1921.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Bardoli Satyagraha (1928):</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Enhancement of land revenue by 30% in the Bardoli district of Gujarat by the British government led to the organisation of a <strong>&lsquo;No-Revenue Campaign&rsquo;</strong> by the Bardoli peasants under the<strong> leadership of Vallabhai Patel.</strong></li>
<li>A woman in Bardoli <strong>gave Vallabhai Patel the title of &lsquo;Sardar&rsquo;.</strong></li>
<li>Unsuccessful attempts of the British to suppress the movement by large scale attachment of cattle and land resulted in the appointment of an enquiry committee.</li>
<li>The enquiry came to the conclusion that the increase had been unjustified and reduced the enhancement to 6.03%.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<table border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%;">
<tbody>
<tr>
<td style="width: 99.9999%; text-align: center; background-color: #05052e;" colspan="3"><span style="color: #ffffff;"><strong>Difference between 19<sup>th</sup> and 20<sup>th</sup> Century Peasant Movements</strong></span></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width: 33.3333%; background-color: #9e98d9;"><strong>Characteristics</strong></td>
<td style="width: 33.3333%; background-color: #9e98d9;"><strong>19<sup>th</sup> Century Peasant Movements</strong></td>
<td style="width: 33.3333%; background-color: #9e98d9;"><strong>20<sup>th</sup> Century Peasant Movements</strong></td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width: 33.3333%; background-color: #e7e3fa; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<p><strong>Objective of Movements:</strong></p>
<p></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 33.3333%; background-color: #e7e3fa; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">The objective of these movements were <strong>centered almost wholly on economic issues</strong> rather than ending the exploitation of the peasants.</td>
<td style="width: 33.3333%; background-color: #e7e3fa; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">The peasants were brought into the <strong>broader struggle against colonialism</strong> beginning with Champaran, Kheda and later Bardoli movement.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width: 33.3333%; background-color: #e7e3fa; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;"><strong>Leadership:</strong></td>
<td style="width: 33.3333%; background-color: #e7e3fa; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">The leadership of these revolts were from the <strong>peasantry itself.</strong></td>
<td style="width: 33.3333%; background-color: #e7e3fa; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">The movements were led by Congress and communist leaders.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width: 33.3333%; background-color: #e7e3fa; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;"><strong>Extent of Movements:</strong></td>
<td style="width: 33.3333%; background-color: #e7e3fa; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">Territorial reach was<strong> limited to a particular local region.</strong></td>
<td style="width: 33.3333%; background-color: #e7e3fa; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<p><strong>All India movements.&nbsp;<br /></strong>The chief form of mobilisation was through holding kisan conferences and meetings.</p>
</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width: 33.3333%; background-color: #e7e3fa; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;"><strong>Understanding of Colonialism:</strong></td>
<td style="width: 33.3333%; background-color: #e7e3fa; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<p>Directed towards specific and limited objectives and redressal of particular grievances.</p>
<p><strong>Colonialism was not the target of these movements.</strong></p>
</td>
<td style="width: 33.3333%; background-color: #e7e3fa; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">There was an<strong> emergence of anti-colonialism consciousness</strong> among peasants.</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td style="width: 33.3333%; background-color: #e7e3fa; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;"><strong>Formal Organization:</strong></td>
<td style="width: 33.3333%; background-color: #e7e3fa; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<p><strong>No formal organization.</strong></p>
<p>These caused movements to be a short term phenomenon.</p>
</td>
<td style="width: 33.3333%; background-color: #e7e3fa; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<p>Emergence of independent class organisations of kisans in rural India.</p>
<p>The <strong>All India Kisan Sabha was formed in 1936.</strong></p>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<h3>Significance of the Movements</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Awareness among the Indians:</strong> Though these revolts were not aimed at uprooting the British rule from India, they created awareness among the Indians. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The peasants<strong> developed a strong awareness of their legal rights</strong> and asserted them in and outside the courts.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Inspired other Revolts:</strong> They felt a <strong>need to organise and fight against exploitation and oppression.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>These rebellions prepared the ground for various other uprisings such as<strong> Sikh Wars in Punjab</strong> and finally the <strong><a href="/to-the-points/paper1/revolt-of-1857" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Revolt of 1857</a>.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Unity Among the Peasantry:</strong> Because of the non-differentiation in the peasantry, and the all-embracing nature of the anti imperialist struggle, the Peasant Movement was able to <strong>unite all sections of the peasantry including the landless labourers</strong> and its anti-feudal and anti-imperialist crusade.</li>
<li><strong>Peasants&rsquo; Voices were Heard:</strong> Due to the peasants fighting directly for their own demands, their voices were heard.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In the Indigo rebellion, Bardoli Satyagraha, Pabna movement and Deccan riots, the demands of peasants were responded to.</li>
<li>Formation of various Kisan Sabhas to hear the peasants' demands during the Non Cooperation Movement.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Growth of Nationalism:</strong> The ideology of non-violence had given much strength to the peasants who participated in the movement. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The movement also contributed to the growth of nationalism.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Encouraged Post-Independence Reforms:</strong> These movements created an atmosphere for post- independence agrarian reforms, for instance, &rsquo;<strong>abolition of Zamindari.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>They eroded the power of the landed class, thus adding to the transformation of the agrarian structure.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>',
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	(int) 12 => object(Cake\ORM\Entity) {

		'article_id' => (int) 8718,
		'category_id' => (int) 21,
		'title' => 'Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay',
		'description' => '<h3>Why in News</h3>
<p>Indian Prime Minister paid homage to Rishi Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay on his Jayanti on 27<sup>th</sup> June.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1624874244_image2.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1624874244_image2.jpg" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="350" caption="false" /></a></p>
<h3>Key Points</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>About:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He was <strong>one of the greatest novelists and poets of India.</strong></li>
<li>He was <strong>born on 27<sup>th</sup> June 1838 in the village of Kanthapura</strong> in the town of North 24 Parganas, Naihati, present day<strong> West Bengal.</strong></li>
<li>He<strong> composed the song Vande Mataram in Sanskrit,</strong> which was a source of inspiration to the people in their freedom struggle.</li>
<li>In 1857, there was a strong revolt against the rule of East India Company but Bankim Chandra Chatterjee continued his studies and passed his B.A. Examination in 1859. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The Lieutenant Governor of Calcutta appointed Bankim Chandra Chatterjee as Deputy Collector in the same year.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>He was <strong>in Government service for thirty-two years</strong> and retired in 1891.</li>
<li>He <strong>died on 8<sup>th</sup> April, 1894.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Contributions to India&rsquo;s Freedom Struggle:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>His epic Novel Anandamath -</strong> set in the background of the<strong> Sanyasi Rebellion (1770-1820),</strong> when Bengal was facing a famine too - made Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay <strong>an influential figure on the Bengali renaissance.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>He kept the people of Bengal intellectually stimulated through his literary campaign.</li>
<li>India got its national song, <strong>Vande Mataram, from Anandamath.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>He also<strong> founded a monthly literary magazine, Bangadarshan, in 1872,</strong> through which Bankim is credited with influencing the emergence of a Bengali identity and nationalism.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Bankim Chandra wanted the magazine to work as the medium of communication between the educated and the uneducated classes.</li>
<li>The <strong>magazine stopped publication in the late 1880s, </strong>but was<strong> resurrected in 1901 with <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/rabindranath-tagore" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Rabindranath Tagore</a> as its editor.</strong></li>
<li>While it carried Tagore&rsquo;s writings - including his first full-length novel Chokher Bali - the &lsquo;new&rsquo; Bangadarshan retained its original philosophy, nurturing the nationalistic spirit.</li>
<li>During the <strong>Partition of Bengal (1905),</strong> the magazine played a vital role in giving an outlet to the voices of protest and dissent. Tagore&rsquo;s Amar Sonar Bangla - the national anthem of Bangladesh now - was first published in Bangadarshan.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Other Literary Contributions:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He had studied Sanskrit and was very interested in the subject, but later took on the responsibility to make Bengali the language of the masses. However, his first published work - a novel - was in English.</li>
<li>His <strong>famous novels</strong> include Kapalkundala (1866), Debi Choudhurani, Bishabriksha (The Poison Tree), Chandrasekhar (1877), Rajmohan&rsquo;s wife and Krishnakanter Will.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Sanyasi Rebellion</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Sanyasi Uprisings took place in Bengal between the periods of<strong> 1770- 1820s.</strong></li>
<li>The Sanyasis rose in rebellion after the great famine of 1770 in Bengal which caused acute chaos and misery.</li>
<li>However, the immediate cause of the rebellion was the <strong>restrictions imposed by the British upon pilgrims visiting holy places</strong> among both Hindus and Muslims.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<p><a href="https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1730652" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Source: PIB</strong></a></p>',
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		'article_id' => (int) 8656,
		'category_id' => (int) 26,
		'title' => 'Khilafat and Non-Cooperation Movement',
		'description' => '<h3>Introduction</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Mass Movements:</strong> Two mass movements were organized in 1919-1922 to oppose the British rule in India are the <strong>Khilafat movement and the Non-Cooperation movement.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The movements, despite having different issues, adopted a unified plan of action of <strong>non-violence and non-cooperation.</strong></li>
<li>This time period saw the <strong>unification of Congress and the Muslim League.</strong> Many political demonstrations took place with the joint effort of both these parties.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Causes of the Movements:</strong> The following factors served as the background to the two movements: <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Government Hostilities:</strong> The <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/100-years-of-rowlatt-satyagraha" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Rowlatt Act</strong></a>, the imposition of martial law in Punjab and the <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/jallianwala-bagh-massacre-3#:~:text=The%20Jallianwala%20Bagh%20massacre%20took,fire%20into%20an%20unarmed%20crowd." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Jallianwalla Bagh massacre</strong> </a>exposed the brutal and uncivilised face of the foreign rule. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The <a href="/current-affairs-news-analysis-editorials/news-analysis/08-04-2019" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Hunter Commission</strong> </a>on the Punjab atrocities proved to be eyewash.</li>
<li>The House of Lords (of the British Parliament) endorsed General Dyer&rsquo;s action.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Discontented Indians:</strong> The <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/government-of-india-act-1919#:~:text=In%201918%2C%20Edwin%20Montagu%2C%20the,came%20into%20force%20in%201921." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms</strong> </a>with their ill- conceived scheme of Dyarchy failed to satisfy the rising demand of the Indians for self-government.</li>
<li><strong>Economic Hardships:</strong> The economic situation of the country in the post-War years had become alarming with a rise in prices of commodities, decrease in production of Indian industries, increase in burden of taxes and rents etc. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Almost all sections of society suffered economic hardship due to the war and this strengthened the anti-British attitude.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Khilafat (Caliphate) Issue</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Turkey&rsquo;s Alliance against British:</strong> The Muslims all over the world, including India, regarded the sultan of Turkey as their spiritual leader, Khalifa (Caliph). <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>During the First World War, Turkey had allied with Germany and Austria against the British.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Discontented Indian Muslims:</strong> The Indian Muslims supported the government during the First World War with an understanding that the sacred places of Ottoman Empire would be in the hands of Khalifa. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>However, after the War, the <strong>Ottoman Empire was divided, Turkey was dismembered and the Khalifa was removed from power.</strong></li>
<li>This angered the Muslims who took it as an insult to the Khalifa. The Ali brothers, <strong>Shoukat Ali and Mohammad Ali</strong> started the Khilafat Movement against the British government. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>This movement took place between 1919 and 1924.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Khilafat Committee:</strong> In early 1919, the<strong> All India Khilafat Committee</strong> was formed under the leadership of the <strong>Ali brothers, <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/national-education-day#:~:text=Maulana%20Abul%20Kalam%20Azad%20%3A,fighter%2C%20scholar%20and%20eminent%20educationist.&amp;text=He%20was%20posthumously%20awarded%20Bharat,highest%20civilian%20award%20in%201992." target="_blank" rel="noopener">Maulana Abul Kalam Azad</a>, Ajmal Khan and Hasrat Mohani,</strong> to force the British Government to change its attitude to Turkey. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Thus, the grounds for a country-wide agitation was prepared.</li>
<li>An <strong>All India Khilafat Conference</strong> was held in Delhi in November 1919 and the call was made to boycott the British goods.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Demands of Indian Muslims:</strong> In India, the Muslims demanded from the British that:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Khalifa&rsquo;s control over Muslim sacred places should be retained.</li>
<li>The Khalifa should be left with sufficient territories after territorial arrangements.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Congress&rsquo; Initial Stand:</strong> The support of the Congress was essential for the Khilafat movement to succeed. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Although <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/mahatma-gandhi-jayanti#:~:text=2nd%20October%202020%20was,of%20the%20Nation%20%2D%20Mahatma%20Gandhi.&amp;text=Gandhi%20was%20a%20social%20reformist,of%20nonviolent%20resistance%20called%20Satyagrah." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Mahatma Gandhi</strong> </a>was in favour of launching Satyagraha and non-cooperation against the Government on the Khilafat issue, the <strong>Congress was not united on this form of political action.</strong></li>
<li>The Congress, later, felt inclined to provide its support as it was a <strong>golden opportunity to unite the Hindus and Muslims </strong>and to bring Muslim participation in such mass movements.</li>
<li>The Muslim League also decided to give full support to the Congress and its agitation on political questions.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>The Non-Cooperation Khilafat Movement</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Role of Mahatma Gandhi: </strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Beginning of the Gandhian Movements:</strong> The Non-Cooperation Movement was the beginning of the Gandhian Movement against the British.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Mahatma Gandhi returned to India in 1915 and started organising peasants and labourers protests, such as those in <a href="/mains-practice-question/question-663#:~:text=Kheda%20Satyagraha%3A%20In%20Kheda%2C%20on,for%20revenue%20remission%20in%201918.&amp;text=Sardar%20Vallabhbhai%20Patel%20mobilised%20the%20peasants%20and%20sustained%20the%20movement." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Kheda</strong></a>, <a href="/mains-practice-question/question-557#:~:text=The%20Champaran%20satyagraha%20of%201917,peasantry%20for%20bread%20and%20land.&amp;text=However%2C%20Gandhiji%20led%20the%20struggle,struggles%20to%20the%20national%20movement." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Champaran</strong></a> and<strong> Ahmedabad,</strong> against the atrocities that were being inflicted upon them.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Beginning of Non-Cooperation:</strong> By the repressive measures of the Jallianwala Bagh Massacre and the denial of justice, Gandhi observed that &ldquo;the only effective means to vindicate national honour and to prevent a repetition of the wrongs in future is the <strong>establishment of Swaraj&rdquo;.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Consequently, the non-co-operation campaign was inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi on 1<sup>st</sup> August, 1919.</li>
<li>The Movement was <strong>initiated in support of the Khilafat Movement.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>During the Movement:</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Spread of Non-violence Message:</strong> Millions of the countrymen stopped their work on that day as a mark of their support to Gandhi and as antipathy towards the Government.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Gandhi along with Ali-brothers made extensive tours to <strong>preach the message of national unity and non-cooperation</strong> with the government.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Boycott of British Titles and Goods:</strong> The programme of non-cooperation consisted of a <strong>surrender of British titles</strong> and honours,<strong> boycott of British Courts,</strong> Legislatures and educational institutions as well as the <strong>boycott of foreign-made goods.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>People lit public bonfires of foreign cloth. The<strong> imports of foreign cloth fell</strong> drastically between 1920 and 1922.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Promotion of Swadeshi:</strong> The boycott led to the promotion of<a href="/to-the-points/paper1/swadeshi-and-boycott-movement" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong> Swadeshi</strong></a> goods especially hand-spun and<strong> hand-woven <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/khadi-gramodyog-vikas-yojana" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Khadi</a> cloth,</strong> the removal of untouchability, the promotion of Hindu-Muslim unity and abstention of alcoholic beverage.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li><strong>Charkha</strong> became a household article.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>People&rsquo;s Response to the Movement:</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Students:</strong> Students in thousands left schools and colleges established by the Government and<strong> joined the movement in large numbers.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Middle Class People:</strong> They <strong>initially led the movement</strong> but later showed a lot of reservations about Gandhi&rsquo;s programme.</li>
<li><strong>Businessmen:</strong> The economic boycott <strong>received support</strong> from the Indian business group because they had benefited from the nationalists&rsquo; emphasis on the use of swadeshi.</li>
<li><strong>Peasants:</strong> There was a <strong>massive participation by the peasants.</strong> However, it further led to the confrontation between the &lsquo;lower and upper castes&rsquo;.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The movement gave an opportunity to the toiling masses to express their real feelings against the British as well as their Indian masters and oppressors.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Women:</strong> Women participated in large numbers, <strong>gave up purdah</strong> and offered their ornaments for the Tilak Fund.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>They took active part in picketing before the shops selling foreign cloth and liquor.</li>
<li>The Tilak Swaraj Fund was announced by Mahatma Gandhi after one year of the beginning of the Non-Cooperation movement.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The Fund was a homage to Bal Gangadhar Tilak on his first death anniversary, aimed at collecting Rs 1 crore to aid India&rsquo;s freedom struggle and resistance to the British rule.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Government&rsquo;s Response:</strong> The police resorted to firing which took the lives of a number of people.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Congress and Khilafat Volunteer Organizations were declared unlawful and illegal.</li>
<li>Public meetings were banned and most of the leaders barring Gandhi were arrested.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Important Personalities Involved:</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Eminent persons like C Rajgopalachari, <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/statue-of-unity-1" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Vallabhbhai Patel</strong></a>, Gopabandhu Das, Ajmal Khan, <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/subhash-chandra-bose-3" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Subhash Chandra Bose</strong></a> and <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-editorials/legacy-of-jawahar-lal-nehru" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Jawaharlal Nehru</strong></a> joined the movement.</li>
<li><strong>Motilal Nehru</strong> and <strong>Chitranjan Das</strong> also joined the movement by giving up their legal profession.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Withdrawal of Non-Cooperation Movement:</strong> In February 1922, at <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/centenary-of-the-chauri-chaura-incident#:~:text=Chauri%20Chaura%20is%20a%20town,Movement%20(1920%2D22)." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Chauri Chaura</strong></a>, Uttar Pradesh, twenty two policemen were brutally killed by the violent mob after the conflict between the mob and the policemen of the Thana.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The news shocked Gandhi too much. Not happy with the increasingly violent trend of the movement, he <strong>immediately announced the withdrawal of the movement.</strong></li>
<li>Most of the nationalist leaders including C.R. Das, Motilal Nehru, Subhash Bose, Jawaharlal Nehru, however, <strong>expressed their disagreement at Gandhi&rsquo;s decision to withdraw the movement.</strong></li>
<li>In March 1922, <strong>Gandhi was arrested</strong> and sentenced to six years in jail.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Causes of Failure of the Movement</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>No Negotiations by Government:</strong> The movement began showing signs of fatigue as it was not possible to sustain any movement at a high pitch for very long.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Government seemed to be in no mood for negotiations.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Loss of Relevance of Khilafat Issue:</strong> The central theme of the agitation, the Khilafat question, dissipated soon.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In November 1922, the people of Turkey rose under <strong>Mustafa Kamal Pasha</strong> and <strong>deprived the Sultan of political power.</strong> Turkey was made a secular state.</li>
<li>A European style of legal system was established in Turkey and extensive rights were granted to women.</li>
<li>Education was nationalised and modern agriculture and industries developed.</li>
<li>In 1924, the Khilafat was abolished.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Lack of Active Response:</strong> In places like Calcutta, Bombay and Madras, which were centres of elite politicians, the response to Gandhi&rsquo;s call was very limited.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The response to the call for resignation from the government service, surrendering of titles, etc., was not taken seriously.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>No Abstinence from Violence:</strong> People had not learnt or fully understood the method of non-violence.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Chauri-Chaura incident marred the spirit of the movement leading to the withdrawal of Non-Cooperation movement.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Impact of Non-Cooperation Movement</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Maximum Extent of the Movement:</strong> With the Non-Cooperation Movement, nationalist sentiments reached every nook and corner of the country and politicised every strata of population: the artisans, peasants, students, urban poor, women, traders etc.</li>
<li><strong>Establishment of Swaraj and Swadeshi Institutions:</strong> National institutions like Gujarat Vidyapith, Kashi Vidyapith, Bihar Vidyapitha, the Bengal National University, Jamia Milia Islamia and the National Muslim University were established.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It gave birth to the strongest idea of having Swaraj, the love for the use of Khadi and becoming a Swadeshi.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Instilling Unity among Indians:</strong> The country had been united by specific anti feelings, grievances against the British projecting Gandhi as the only unchallenged leader of the century.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Khilafat issue was not directly linked to Indian politics but it provided the immediate declaration to the movement and added advantage of cementing Hindu-Muslim unity against the British.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Impacts on the Economic Front:</strong> Foreign goods were boycotted and the import of foreign cloth halved between 1921 and 1922.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In many places merchants and traders refused to trade in foreign goods or finance foreign trade.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Some Important Events</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The <strong>Treaty of Sevres with Turkey</strong> was signed in May 1920 which completely dismembered Turkey.</li>
<li>In June 1920, an <strong>all-party conference at Allahabad</strong> approved a programme of boycott of schools, colleges and law courts, and asked Mahatma Gandhi to lead it.</li>
<li>On August 31, 1920, the<strong> Khilafat Committee started a campaign of non-cooperation</strong> and the movement was formally launched.</li>
<li>In September 1920, at a special session in Calcutta, the <strong>Congress approved a non-cooperation programme</strong> till the Punjab and Khilafat wrongs were removed and swaraj was established.</li>
<li>In December 1920, at the <strong>Nagpur session of the Indian National Congress;</strong> the programme of <strong>non-cooperation was endorsed.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Some important organisational changes were made: a <strong>Congress Working Committee (CWC) of 15 members was set up</strong> to lead the Congress from now onwards.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>',
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		'article_id' => (int) 8607,
		'category_id' => (int) 26,
		'title' => 'Swadeshi and Boycott Movement',
		'description' => '<h3>Introduction</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Emergence of Nationalism:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It was only in the 19<sup>th</sup> Century that the concept of a national identity and national consciousness emerged.</li>
<li>The social, economic and political factors had inspired the people to define and achieve their national identity.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Causes of Growing Nationalism:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Recognising True British Intents:</strong> The British government was not conceding any of the important demands of the Indians.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The economic miseries of the 1890s further exposed the exploitative character of colonial rule.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Growth of Confidence:</strong> A feeling started gaining currency that the masses had to be involved in the battle against the colonial government to gain freedom.</li>
<li><strong>Increasing Awareness:</strong> The spread of education led to an increased awareness among the masses about the British policies.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Rise in unemployment and underemployment and resultant poverty further aggravated the discontent among the radical nationalists.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>International Influences:</strong> The Indian nationalists were inspired by the nationalist movements worldwide in Ireland, Japan, Egypt, Turkey, Persia and China which demolished the myths of European invincibility.</li>
<li><strong>Conservative Policies of Lord Curzon:</strong> Administrative measures adopted during <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/reforms-and-administration-under-lord-curzon#:~:text=North%2DWest%20Frontier%20Policy%3A%20Curzon,for%20the%20security%20of%20Chitral." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Lord Curzon's</strong></a> rule such as the Indian Universities Act, the Calcutta Corporation Act and primarily the <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/bengal-partition#:~:text=The%20Partition%20of%20India%20in,mass%20migration%20in%20human%20history." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Partition of Bengal</strong></a> led to nationwide protests. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The Swadeshi Movement; one of the most successful movements of the Pre-Gandhian era, was an outcome of the Partition of Bengal.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Swadeshi Movement</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Background:</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The movement had its roots in the <strong>anti-partition movement</strong> which was started to oppose Lord Curzon&rsquo;s decision of dividing the province of Bengal.</li>
<li>The <strong>Anti-Partition Campaign</strong> was<strong> launched by Moderates</strong> to exert pressure on the government to prevent the unjust partition of Bengal from being implemented.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The petitions were written to the government, public meetings were held and the ideas were spread through newspapers such as<em><strong> Hitabadi, Sanjibani </strong></em>and<strong></strong><em><strong> Bengalee.</strong></em></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The partition led to protest meetings in Bengal under which the pledge to boycott foreign goods was first taken.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Swadeshi Movement Proclamation:</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In August 1905, at Calcutta Townhall, a massive meeting was held and the <strong>formal proclamation of the Swadeshi Movement was made.</strong></li>
<li>The message was propagated to boycott goods such as <strong>Manchester cloth and Liverpool salt.</strong></li>
<li>After the partition came into force, widespread opposition was shown by the people of Bengal by singing <strong><em>Vande Mataram.</em></strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Rabindranath Tagore also composed <em><strong>Amar Sonar Bangla.</strong></em></li>
<li>People tied <em><strong>Rakhis</strong></em> on each other&rsquo;s hands as a symbol of unity.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Although the movement was confined majorly to Bengal, it spread to a few different parts of India:
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>In Poona and Bombay under<strong> Bal Gangadhar Tilak</strong></li>
<li>In Punjab under <strong>Lala Lajpat Rai and Ajit Singh</strong></li>
<li>In Delhi under <strong>Syed Haider Raza</strong></li>
<li>In Madras under<strong> Chidambaram Pillai.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Congres Reaction:</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Indian National Congress (INC) in a meeting in 1905 resolved to<strong> condemn the partition of Bengal</strong> and support the anti-partition and Swadeshi Movement.</li>
<li>The radical nationalists wanted the movement to be taken outside Bengal and go beyond just the boycott of foreign goods.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>However, the moderates, dominating the Congress, were unwilling to go that far.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>In the 1906 <strong>Congress Session held at Calcutta,</strong> the INC under the presidentship of <strong>Dadabhai Naoroji declared self-government or Swaraj as the goal of INC.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Rise of the Radical Nationalists:</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Extremists (or the <strong>Garam Dal</strong>) gained a dominant influence over the Swadeshi Movement in Bengal after 1905 till 1908; it is also known as the <strong>&ldquo;Era of Passionate Nationalists&rdquo;.</strong></li>
<li><strong><a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/lala-lajpat-rai" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Lala Lajpat Rai</a>, <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/bal-gangadhar-tilak#:~:text=Key%20Points,also%20known%20as%20Lokmanya%20Tilak." target="_blank" rel="noopener">Bal Gangadhar Tilak</a></strong> and Bipin Chandra Pal <strong>(Lal-Bal-Pal)</strong> were important leaders of this Radical group.</li>
<li>The reasons for the same were:
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Failure of the Moderate-led Swadeshi movement.</li>
<li>Divisive tactics of the governments of East Bengal and Western Bengal.</li>
<li>Violent measures of the British to suppress the movement.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>In addition to boycotting the Extremists gave a call for boycotting government schools and colleges, government service, courts, legislative councils, municipalities, government titles, etc.</li>
<li>Tilak gave the slogan <strong>&ldquo;Freedom is my birthright and I shall have it&rdquo;.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Participation of People:</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Students:</strong> School and college students were the <strong>most active participants of the movement.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Student participation was visible in Bengal, Poona (Maharashtra), Guntur (Andhra Pradesh), Madras and Salem (Tamil Nadu).</li>
<li>The police adopted a repressive attitude towards the students. The students found guilty were fined, expelled, beaten, arrested and disqualified for government jobs and scholarships.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Women:</strong> Traditionally home-centered women too took active part in the movement.</li>
<li><strong>Stand of Muslims:</strong> Some of the muslims participated, however, most of the upper and middle class muslims stayed away.
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>They <strong>supported the partition</strong> on the belief that it would provide them a Muslim-majority East Bengal.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Impact of Swadeshi Movement</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Decline in Imports:</strong> It resulted in significant decline in the foreign imports during 1905-1908.</li>
<li><strong>Growth of Extremism:</strong> Movement resulted in growth of extreme nationalism amongst youth which took to violence and wanted to bring an instant end to British dominance.</li>
<li><strong>Morley-Minto Reforms:</strong> It forced British dispensation to offer some concessions to Indians in forms of <a href="/mains-practice-question/question-193#:~:text=The%20demand%20for%20separate%20electorates,Indians%20by%20Montague%2D%20Chelmsford%20reforms." target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Morley-Minto reforms</strong></a> in 1909.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/gopal-krishna-gokhale-1" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Gopal Krishna Gokhale</strong></a> played an important role in framing these reforms.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Establishment of Swadeshi Institutions:</strong> Inspired by Rabindranath Tagore&rsquo;s <em><strong>Shantiniketan,</strong></em> the Bengal National College and a number of national schools and colleges in various parts of the country were set up.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In August 1906, the<strong> National Council of Education</strong> was set up to organise the national education system.</li>
<li>A<strong> Bengal Institute of Technology</strong> was set up for technical education.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Growth in Swadeshi Industries:</strong> It led to establishments of swadeshi textile mills, soap and match factories, tanneries, banks, insurance companies, shops, etc.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It also revived the Indian Cottage Industry.</li>
<li>Indian industries saw regeneration with reawakening of use of indigenous goods.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Boycott of Buyers and Sellers:</strong> The foreign goods including clothing, sugar, salt and various other luxury items were not only boycotted, but they were also burned.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Swadeshi movement also led to social boycott of not only buyers but also sellers of foreign goods.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>The Gradual Suppression of the Swadeshi Movement</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Government Repression:</strong> By 1908, the Swadeshi Movement was almost over in an open phase due to government&rsquo;s violent repression.</li>
<li><strong>Absence of Leaders and Organisation:</strong> The movement failed to create an effective organisation. It was rendered leaderless as most of the leaders were either arrested or deported by the time.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Maintaining the high intensity of such a mass movement was a difficult task in absence of effective leaders.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Internal Conflicts:</strong> The internal conflicts and difference in ideologies among the leaders did more harm to the movement than good.</li>
<li><strong>Limited Extent:</strong> The movement failed to reach the peasantry and was confined to the upper and middle classes only.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Annulment of Participation of Bengal</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The partition of Bengal was annulled in 1911 by<strong> Lord Hardinge</strong> primarily to curb the revolutionary terrorism.</li>
<li>Bihar and Orissa were taken out of Bengal and Assam was made a separate province.</li>
<li>The annulment was not taken well by the Muslims, consequently, the British <strong>shifted the administrative capital from Calcutta to Delhi,</strong> as the place was associated with Muslim glory.</li>
</ul>
</div>',
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	(int) 15 => object(Cake\ORM\Entity) {

		'article_id' => (int) 8545,
		'category_id' => (int) 21,
		'title' => 'Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj',
		'description' => '<h3>Why in News</h3>
<p>On the occasion of the anniversary of <strong>Maratha king&rsquo;s coronation day (6<sup>th</sup> June),</strong> the Goa government has released a short film on Chhatrapati Shivaji.</p>
<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1623063998_image3.png" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1623063998_image3.png" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="400" caption="false" /></a></p>
<h3>Key Points</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Birth:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He was <strong>born on 19<sup>th</sup> February, 1630 at Shivneri Fort in District Pune</strong> in the present-day state of Maharashtra.</li>
<li>He was born to <strong>Shahaji Bhonsle,</strong> a Maratha general who held the jagirs of Pune and Supe under the Bijapur Sultanate and<strong> Jijabai,</strong> a pious woman whose religious qualities had a profound influence on him.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Early Life:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He displayed his military zeal for the first time<strong> in 1645</strong> when as a teenager, he successfully<strong> got control of the Torna Fort</strong> which was under Bijapur.</li>
<li>He also acquired the <strong>Kondana Fort.</strong> Both these forts were under Adil Shah of Bijapur.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Important Battle:</strong></li>
</ul>
<table border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse; width: 100%;">
<tbody>
<tr style="height: 10px;">
<td style="width: 20.4791%; height: 10px; vertical-align: top; text-align: center;"><strong>Battle of Pratapgad, 1659</strong></td>
<td style="width: 79.5209%; height: 10px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Fought at the fort of Pratapgad near the town of Satara, Maharashtra, between the forces of the <strong>Maratha king Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and the Adilshahi general Afzal Khan.</strong></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 20.4791%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; text-align: center;"><strong>Battle of Pavan Khind, 1660</strong></td>
<td style="width: 79.5209%; height: 19px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Fought at a mountain pass in the vicinity of fort Vishalgad, near the city of Kolhapur, Maharashtra, <strong>between the Maratha Sardar Baji Prabhu Deshpande and Siddi Masud of Adilshahi.</strong></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 20.4791%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; text-align: center;"><strong>Sacking of Surat, 1664</strong></td>
<td style="width: 79.5209%; height: 19px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Fought near the city of Surat, Gujarat,<strong> between Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj and Inayat Khan,</strong> a Mughal captain.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 20.4791%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; text-align: center;"><strong>Battle of Purandar, 1665</strong></td>
<td style="width: 79.5209%; height: 19px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Fought between the <strong>Mughal Empire and Maratha Empire.</strong></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 20.4791%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; text-align: center;"><strong>Battle of Sinhagad, 1670</strong></td>
<td style="width: 79.5209%; height: 19px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Fought on the fort of Sinhagad near the city of Pune, Maharashtra<strong> between Tanaji Malusare, a commander of Maratha ruler Shivaji Maharaj and Udaybhan Rathod,</strong> fortkeeper under Jai Singh I who was a Mughal Army Chief.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 20.4791%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; text-align: center;"><strong>Battle of Kalyan, 1682-83</strong></td>
<td style="width: 79.5209%; height: 19px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Bahadur Khan of the Mughal Empire defeated the Maratha army</strong> and took over Kalyan.</li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
<tr style="height: 19px;">
<td style="width: 20.4791%; height: 19px; vertical-align: top; text-align: center;"><strong>Battle of Sangamner, 1679</strong></td>
<td style="width: 79.5209%; height: 19px; text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Fought between the Mughal Empire and Maratha Empire. This was the<strong> last battle in which the Maratha King Shivaji fought.</strong></li>
</ul>
</td>
</tr>
</tbody>
</table>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Conflict with Mughals:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He raided Mughal territory near Ahmednagar and in Junnar, 1657.</li>
<li>Aurangzeb responded to the raids by sending Nasiri Khan, who defeated the forces of Shivaji at Ahmednagar.</li>
<li>Shivaji defeated a large force of <strong>Shaista Khan (Aurangzeb&rsquo;s maternal uncle)</strong> and the Bijapur army in Pune,1659.</li>
<li>In <strong>1664,</strong> the wealthy Mughal trading <strong>port of Surat was sacked by Shivaji.</strong></li>
<li>In June 1665, the <strong>Treaty of Purandar</strong> was signed between Shivaji and Raja Jai Singh I (representing Aurangzeb).<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>As per this treaty, many forts were relinquished to the Mughals and it was agreed that Shivaji would meet Aurangzeb at Agra. Shivaji also agreed to send his son Sambhaji as well.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Arrest of Shivaji:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>When Shivaji <strong>went to meet the Mughal emperor at Agra in 1666,</strong> the Maratha warrior felt he was insulted by Aurangzeb and stormed out of the court.</li>
<li>He was arrested and kept prisoner. The <strong>clever escape of Shivaji and his son</strong> from imprisonment in disguise out of Agra is legendary today.</li>
<li>After that there was peace between the Marathas and the Mughals until 1670.</li>
<li>The<strong> jagir of Berar</strong> which was granted to Sambhaji by the Mughals was taken back from him.</li>
<li>Shivaji in response attacked and recovered many territories from the Mughals in a short span of four months.</li>
<li>Through his military tactics, Shivaji <strong>acquired a large part of the land in the Deccan and western India.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Granted Title:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He was crowned as the <strong>king of the Marathas</strong> on 6<sup>th</sup> June , 1674, at Raigad.</li>
<li>He took on the titles of<strong> Chhatrapati, Shakakarta, Kshatriya Kulavantas and Haindava Dharmodhhaarak.</strong></li>
<li>The <strong>Maratha Kingdom</strong> founded by Shivaji grew larger over time and became the dominant Indian power in the early 18th century.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Death:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He died on 3<sup>rd</sup> April 1680.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Administration under Shivaji</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Central Administration:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It was founded by Shivaji for the sound system of administration which was greatly inspired from the <strong>Deccan style of administration.</strong></li>
<li>Most of the administrative reforms were inspired from <strong>Malik Amber reforms in Ahmednagar.</strong></li>
<li>The <strong>King was the supreme head of state</strong> who was assisted by a group of eight ministers known as the <strong>&lsquo;Ashtapradhan&rsquo;.</strong></li>
<li>The <strong>peshwa, also known as the mukhya pradhan,</strong> originally headed the advisory council of the raja Shivaji.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Revenue Administration:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Shivaji abolished<strong> the Jagirdari System</strong> and replaced it with <strong>Ryotwari System,</strong> and changes in the position of hereditary revenue officials which was popularly known<strong> as Deshmukhs, Deshpande, Patils and Kulkarnis.</strong></li>
<li>Shivaji strictly supervised the <strong>Mirasdars</strong> who had hereditary rights in land.</li>
<li>The revenue system was patterned on the <strong>Kathi system of Malik Amber</strong> in which every piece of land was measured by Rod or Kathi.</li>
<li>Chauth and Sardeshmukhi were other sources of income.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li><strong>Chauth</strong> amounted to <strong>1/4<sup>th</sup> of the standard</strong> which was paid to Marathas as a safeguard against Shivaji&rsquo;s forces raiding Non-Maratha territories.</li>
<li><strong>Sardeshmukhi</strong> was <strong>an additional levy of 10%</strong> demanded from areas outside of the kingdom.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Military Administration:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Shivaji organised a disciplined and efficient army.</li>
<li>The ordinary soldiers were paid in cash, but the chief and military commander were paid through<strong> jagir grants (Saranjam or Mokasa).</strong></li>
<li>The army consists of Infantry i.e. Mavali foot soldiers, Cavalry i.e. Horse riders and equipment holders, Navy.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="https://indianexpress.com/article/india/goa-govt-releases-film-on-shivaji-to-restore-his-forts-temples-7347152/" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Source: IE</strong></a></p>',
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	(int) 16 => object(Cake\ORM\Entity) {

		'article_id' => (int) 8478,
		'category_id' => (int) 21,
		'title' => 'Veer Savarkar Jayanti',
		'description' => '<h3>Why in News</h3>
<p>On <strong>28<sup>th</sup> May</strong>, India paid tribute to the freedom fighter, <strong>Vinayak Damodar Savarkar (Veer Savarkar)</strong> on his <strong>birth anniversary.</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>He was an Indian independence activist, politician, lawyer and writer.</li>
<li>He is also known as <strong>Swatantryaveer Savarkar.</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>Key Points</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Birth:</strong> Born on <strong>28<sup>th</sup> May,1883 in Bhagur</strong>, a village near Nashik in <strong>Maharashtra.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Related Organisations and Work:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Founded a secret society called <strong>Abhinav Bharat Society.</strong></li>
<li>Went to the United Kingdom and was involved with organizations such as <strong>India House and the Free India Society.</strong></li>
<li>He was the <strong>president of Hindu Mahasabha from 1937 to 1943.</strong></li>
<li>Savarkar wrote a book titled <strong>&lsquo;The History of the War of Indian Independence&rsquo;</strong> in which he wrote about the guerilla warfare tricks used in <strong><a href="/mains-practice-question/question-179" target="_blank" rel="noopener">1857 Sepoy Mutiny</a>.</strong></li>
<li>He also wrote the book <strong>&lsquo;Hindutva: who is hindu?&rsquo;.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Trial and Sentences:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Arrested in 1909</strong> on charges of plotting an armed revolt against the <strong><a href="/mains-practice-question/question-193" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Morley-Minto reform (Indian Councils Act 1909)</a>.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Arrested in 1910</strong> for his <strong>connections with the revolutionary group India House.</strong></li>
<li>One of the charges on Savarkar was abetment to murder of Nashik Collector Jackson and the second was waging a conspiracy under Indian Penal Code 121-A against the King emperor.</li>
<li>Following the two trials, Savarkar was convicted and sentenced to <strong>50-years imprisonment also known as Kala Pani</strong> and transported in 1911 to the <strong>Cellular Jail</strong> in the <strong>Andaman and Nicobar Islands.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Death:</strong> He died on 26th February 1966 due to fasting on his own wish of death.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Abhinav Bharat Society (Young India Society)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It was a secret society founded by Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and his brother Ganesh Damodar Savarkar <strong>in</strong> <strong>1904.</strong></li>
<li>Initially founded at Nasik as Mitra Mela, the society was associated with several revolutionaries and political activists with branches in various parts of India and London.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>India House</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It was <strong>founded by Shyamji Kishan Verma in 1905</strong> in London.</li>
<li>It was opened to promote nationalist views among Indian students in London.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Free India Society</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Savarkar</strong> went to London in 1906. He soon founded the Free India Society, based on the thoughts of the Italian nationalist Giuseppe Mazzini (Savarkar had written a biography of Mazzini).</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Hindu Mahasabha</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Akhil Bharat Hindu Mahasabha</strong> is one of the oldest organizations of India as it was <strong>formed in 1907</strong>. Eminent leaders <strong>extended this Organization in 1915 on ALL India basis.</strong></li>
<li>The Eminent personalities who founded this Organisation and who presided over the ALL INDIA Sessions held include Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya, Lal Lajpat Rai, Veer Vinayak Damodar Savarkar, etc.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<p><a href="https://pib.gov.in/PressReleseDetailm.aspx?PRID=1722343" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Source: PIB</strong></a></p>',
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		'article_id' => (int) 8444,
		'category_id' => (int) 26,
		'title' => 'Government of India Act, 1919',
		'description' => '<h3>Introduction</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Background:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In 1918, Edwin Montagu, the Secretary of State, and Lord Chelmsford, the Viceroy, produced their scheme of constitutional reforms, known as the<strong> Montagu-Chelmsford (or Mont-Ford) Reforms,</strong> which led to the enactment of the <strong>Government of India Act of 1919.</strong></li>
<li>Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms which came into force in 1921.</li>
<li>The sole purpose of this Act was to ensure Indians of their representation in the Government.</li>
<li>The Act introduced reforms at the Central as well as Provincial levels of Government.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Salient Features of the Act</h3>
<p><strong>Central Level Government: </strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Subjects:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The matters, which were of National importance or related to more than one province were governed at the central level, such as:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Foreign Affairs, Defence, Political Relations, Communication, Public Debt, Civil and Criminal Laws, Wire services etc.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The <strong>Central Legislature was made more powerful and more representative by this Act.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Executive:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Act made the <strong>Governor-General the chief executive authority.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>There had to be the<strong> Executive Council of the Viceroy</strong> of eight members, out of which three were to be Indians.</li>
<li>The governor-general could restore cuts in grants, certify bills rejected by the central legislature and issue ordinances.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Reforms in Legislature: </strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Bicameral Legislature:</strong> The Act<strong> introduced</strong> bicameral legislature; the Lower House or Central Legislative Assembly and the Upper House or Council of State.</li>
<li>The legislators, under the new reforms,<strong> could now ask questions and supplementaries, pass adjournment motions</strong> and <strong>vote a part of the budget,</strong> but <strong>75% of the budget</strong> was still <strong>not votable.</strong></li>
<li>The legislature had virtually <strong>no control over the Governor-General and his Executive Council.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Composition of Lower House:</strong> The Lower House would consist of 145 members, who were either nominated or indirectly elected from the provinces. It had a tenure of 3 years.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li><strong>41 nominated</strong> (26 official and 15 non-official members)</li>
<li><strong>104 elected</strong> (52 General, 30 Muslims, 2 Sikhs, 20 Special).</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Composition Upper House:</strong> The Upper House would have 60 members. It had a tenure of 5 years and had only male members.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li><strong>26 nominated</strong></li>
<li><strong>34 elected</strong> (20 General, 10 Muslims, 3 Europeans and 1 Sikh).</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Powers of Viceroy:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong>Legislature was addressed by the Viceroy.</strong></li>
<li>He could call for the meetings, or adjourn the meetings or even repeal the Legislature.</li>
<li>The tenure of the Legislature was 3 years, which could be extended by the Viceroy, as he saw fit.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Powers of Central Legislature:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The central government enjoyed unrestricted control over the provincial governments.</li>
<li>The Central Legislature was authorised to make laws for all of India, for all Officers and common people, whether they were in India or not.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Restrictions on Central Legislature:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Certain restrictions were imposed on the legislature:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>It was necessary to get the permission of the Governor General to introduce a bill, such as amendment of existing law or amendment of ordinance of Governor General, foreign relations and relations with Indian states, armed forces.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The legislature of <strong>India could not change or reverse any law passed by the British Parliament</strong> in relation to India.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Provincial Level Government:</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Subjects:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It included the matters which were related to a specific Province such as:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Public Health, Local Self-government, Education, General administration, Medical facilities, Land-revenue, Water supply, Famine relief, Law and Order, Agriculture etc.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Introduction to Diarchy:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Act<strong> introduced diarchy (rule of two individuals/parties) for the executive</strong> at the level of the provincial government.</li>
<li>The diarchy was implemented in eight provinces:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Assam, Bengal, Bihar and Orissa, Central Provinces, United Provinces, Bombay, Madras and Punjab.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The <strong>provincial governments were given more powers</strong> under the system of Dyarchy.</li>
<li>The <strong>governor was to be the executive head in the province.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Division of Subjects:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Subjects were divided into two lists: <strong>&lsquo;reserved&rsquo;</strong> and <strong>&lsquo;transferred&rsquo;.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The <strong>reserved list,</strong> under which the <strong>subjects were to be administered by the governor</strong> through his executive council of bureaucrats. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>It included subjects such as law and order, finance, land revenue, irrigation etc.</li>
<li><strong>All important subjects were kept in the reserved subjects</strong> of the Provincial Executive.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The transferred subjects were to be <strong>administered by ministers nominated from among the elected members</strong> of the legislative council.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>It included subjects such as education, health, local government, industry, agriculture, excise, etc.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>In case of <strong>failure of constitutional machinery</strong> in the province the<strong> governor could take over the administration</strong> of transferred subjects also.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Restriction in Interference:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong>Secretary Of State for India</strong> and the<strong> Governor General</strong> could interfere in respect of reserved subjects while in respect of the transferred subjects, the scope for their interference was restricted.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Reforms in Legislature:</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Provincial legislative councils were further expanded and <strong>70% of the members were to be elected.</strong></li>
<li>The system of <strong>communal and class electorates</strong> was further consolidated.</li>
<li><strong>Women were also given the right to vote.</strong></li>
<li>The <strong>legislative councils could reject the budget</strong> but the<strong> governor could restore it, if necessary. </strong></li>
<li>The <strong>legislators enjoyed freedom of speech.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Powers of the Governor:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Governor could overrule the ministers on any grounds that he considered special. Also, he retained complete control over the finances.</li>
<li>The legislative councils could initiate legislation but the governor&rsquo;s assent was required.</li>
<li>The <strong>governor could veto bills and issue ordinances.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Significance of the Act</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Awakening Among Indians:</strong> Indians received secret information about administration and became aware of their duties. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>This<strong> instilled a sense of nationalism and awakening among Indians</strong> and they <strong>moved towards achieving the goal of Swaraj. </strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Expansion of Voting Rights:</strong> Election areas expanded in India and <strong>people began to understand the importance of voting. </strong></li>
<li><strong>Self Government in Provinces:</strong> The Act<strong> led to the existence of provincial self-government</strong> in India. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Act <strong>gave the people the power to administer</strong> and administrative pressure from the government was greatly reduced.</li>
<li><strong>It prepared Indians to discharge responsibilities</strong> in the provincial administration.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Drawbacks of the Act</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Irresponsible Central Government:</strong> No responsible government was envisaged in the Act at the all-India level.</li>
<li><strong>Spread of Communalism:</strong> The flawed electoral system and limited franchise failed to gain popularity. It promoted a sense of communalism in a separate electoral system.</li>
<li><strong>Limited Extension of Electorates:</strong> The electorate was extended to some one-and-a-half million for the central legislature, while the population of India was around 260 million, as per one estimate.</li>
<li><strong>Lack of Administrative Control:</strong> At the centre, the legislature had no control over the viceroy and his executive council. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong>provincial ministers had no control over finances</strong> and over the bureaucrats; this would lead to constant friction between the two.</li>
<li>Ministers were often not consulted on important matters too and could be overruled by the governor on any matter that the latter considered special.</li>
<li>The <strong>Governor enjoyed unrestricted powers,</strong> he could also take a decision against the decision of his council and ministers. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Almost all important matters related to administration depended on the governor.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Inappropriate Division of Subjects:</strong> Division of subjects was not satisfactory at the centre. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The <strong>central legislature was given very little power and no control over finances.</strong></li>
<li>At the level of provinces, division of subjects and parallel administration of two parts was irrational and, hence, unworkable. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Subjects like irrigation, finance, police, press and justice were &lsquo;reserved&rsquo;.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Outcomes of the Act</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Public Reaction:</strong> The Congress met in a special session in August 1918 at Bombay under <strong>Hasan Imam&rsquo;s</strong> presidency and <strong>declared the reforms to be &ldquo;disappointing&rdquo; and &ldquo;unsatisfactory&rdquo; and demanded effective self-government instead.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Montford reforms were termed <strong>&ldquo;unworthy and disappointing - a sunless dawn&rdquo; by <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/bal-gangadhar-tilak" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Bal Gangadhar Tilak</a>. </strong></li>
<li><strong>Annie Besant</strong> found the reforms <strong>&ldquo;unworthy of England to offer and India to accept&rdquo;.</strong></li>
<li>Veteran Congress leaders led by Surendranath Banerjea were<strong> in favour of accepting the government proposals.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Encouraged the Struggle for Power:</strong> The Act encouraged the struggle for power in both Indians and the British. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>As a result a large number of communal riots took place which continued to increase from 1922 to 1927.</li>
<li>The <strong>Swaraj Party was founded in 1923</strong> and won a substantial number of seats in the elections, except Madras. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Whereas in Bombay and Central Provinces were successful in blocking the majority of other supplies with the salaries of ministers.</li>
<li>Thus the governors of both the provinces were <strong>forced to abolish the diarchy regime</strong> and took the transferred subjects under their control.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Enactment of the Rowlatt Act:</strong> While trying to appease Indians, the Government of India was ready with repression. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Throughout the war, repression of nationalists had continued. The terrorists and revolutionaries had been hunted down, hanged and imprisoned. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Many other nationalists such as <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/70-years-of-indian-council-for-cultural-relations" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Maulana Abul Kalam Azad</strong> </a>had also been kept behind bars.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The government now decided to arm itself with more far-reaching powers, which went against the accepted principles of rule of law, to be able to suppress those nationalists who would refuse to be satisfied with the official reforms.</li>
<li><strong>In March 1919</strong> it passed the<a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/100-years-of-rowlatt-satyagraha" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong> Rowlatt Act</strong> </a>even though every single Indian member of the Central Legislative Council opposed it.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>This <strong>Act authorized the government to imprison any person without trial and conviction in a court of law.</strong></li>
<li>The Act enabled the government to suspend the right of <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/habeas-corpus-cases-in-jammu-kashmir" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Habeas Corpus</strong></a> which had been the foundation of civil liberties in Britain.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>',
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		'article_id' => (int) 8347,
		'category_id' => (int) 21,
		'title' => 'Gopal Krishna Gokhale',
		'description' => '<h3>Why in News</h3>
<p>The Prime Minister of India paid tribute to Gopal Krishna Gokhale on his Jayanti.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Gopal Krishna Gokhale was a great social reformer and educationist who provided exemplary leadership to India's freedom movement.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Key Points</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Birth:</strong> 9<sup>th</sup> May, 1866 in Kotluk village in present-day Maharashtra (then part of the Bombay Presidency).</li>
<li><strong>Ideology:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Gokhale worked towards social empowerment, expansion of education , struggle for freedom in India for three decades and rejected the use of reactionary or revolutionary ways.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Role in Colonial Legislatures:<a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1620718379_image1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1620718379_image1.jpg" style="float: right;" caption="false" width="194" height="259" /></a></strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Between 1899 and 1902,</strong> he was a member of the<strong> Bombay Legislative Council</strong> followed by work at the <strong>Imperial Legislative Council from 1902</strong> till his <strong>death (1915).</strong></li>
<li>At the Imperial legislature, Gokhale played a key role in framing the <strong>Morley-Minto reforms of 1909.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Role in INC:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He was <strong>associated with the Moderate Group of <a href="/to-the-points/paper1/important-indian-national-congress-sessions" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Indian National Congress</a> (joined in 1889).</strong></li>
<li>He became<strong> president of INC in 1905 in Banaras session.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>This was the time when bitter differences had arisen between his group of <strong>&lsquo;Moderates&rsquo; and the &lsquo;Extremists&rsquo;</strong> led by <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/lala-lajpat-rai" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Lala Lajpat Rai</strong></a> and <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/bal-gangadhar-tilak" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Bal Gangadhar Tilak</strong></a> among others. The two factions<strong> split at the Surat session of 1907.</strong></li>
<li>Despite the ideological difference,<strong> in 1907,</strong> he intensely <strong>campaigned for the release of Lala Lajpat Rai,</strong> who was imprisoned that year by the British at Mandalay in present-day Myanmar.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Related Societies and Other Works:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He <strong>established the Servants of India Society in 1905</strong> for the expansion of Indian education.</li>
<li>He was <strong>also associated with the Sarvajanik sabha journal</strong> started by Govind Ranade.</li>
<li>In 1908, Gokhale <strong>founded the Ranade Institute of Economics.</strong></li>
<li>He started english weekly newspaper, <strong>The Hitavada</strong> (The people's paper).</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Mentor to Gandhi:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>As a liberal nationalist, he is<strong> regarded by <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/mahatma-gandhi-jayanti" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Mahatma Gandhi</a> as his political guru.</strong></li>
<li>Gandhi wrote a book in Gujarati dedicated to the leader titled <strong>&lsquo;Dharmatma Gokhale&rsquo;.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Morley-Minto Reforms 1909</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The reforms included the<strong> admission of Indians to the Secretary of State's council, to the viceroy's executive council,</strong> and to the executive councils of Bombay and Madras, and the <strong>introduction of an elected element into legislative councils</strong> with provision for <strong>separate electorates for Muslims.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The reforms were regarded by Indian nationalists as too cautious, and the provision of separate electorates for Muslims was resented by Hindu.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The <strong>legislative councils</strong> at the <strong>Centre and the provinces</strong> were increased in size.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Act increased the maximum <strong>additional membership of the Imperial Legislative Council from 16 to 60.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The legislative councils at the Centre and the provinces were to have<strong> four categories of members</strong> as follows:<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Ex officio members:</strong> Governor-General and members of the executive council.</li>
<li><strong>Nominated official members:</strong> Government officials who were nominated by the Governor-General.</li>
<li><strong>Nominated non-official members:</strong> Nominated by the Governor-General but were not government officials.</li>
<li><strong>Elected members:</strong> Elected by different categories of Indians.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>The elected members were<strong> elected indirectly.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Indians were given membership</strong> to the Imperial Legislative Council for the<strong> first time.</strong></li>
<li>It introduced<strong> separate electorates for the Muslims.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Some constituencies were earmarked for Muslims and only Muslims could vote for their representatives.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Satyendra P Sinha</strong> was appointed the first Indian member of the<strong> Viceroy&rsquo;s Executive Council.</strong></li>
</ul>
</div>
<p><a href="https://pib.gov.in/PressReleasePage.aspx?PRID=1717169" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Source PIB</strong></a></p>',
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		'article_id' => (int) 8343,
		'category_id' => (int) 26,
		'title' => 'Reforms and Administration under Lord Curzon',
		'description' => '<h3>About Lord Curzon</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>George Nathaniel Curzon (11 January, 1859- 20 March, 1925) born in Kedleston Hall, England was a <strong>British statesman and foreign secretary</strong> who during his terms in office <strong>played a major role in British policy making.</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Lord Curzon succeeded Lord Elgin and <strong>served as India&rsquo;s Viceroy between 1899 and 1905.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>He became the <strong>youngest Viceroy of India</strong> at the age of 39.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>He was one of the most controversial and consequential holders of that post. </li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Before assuming office as governor general and viceroy, <strong>Curzon had visited India (four times)</strong> Ceylon, Afghanistan. China, Persia, Turkestan, Japan, and Korea. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>No other governor general of India had such vast experience and ideas about the countries of the East as Lord Curzon.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Curzon&rsquo;s Views Regarding India:</strong><br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Lord Curzon was deeply a racist, and <strong>convinced of Britain&rsquo;s &ldquo;civilising mission&rdquo;</strong> in India. </li>
<li>He described Indians as having &ldquo;extraordinary inferiority in character, honesty and capacity&rdquo;.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Curzon&rsquo;s Foreign Policies</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>North-West Frontier Policy:</strong> Curzon, unlike his pre&shy;decessors, <strong>pursued a policy of consolidation, strength and security of the British occupied terri&shy;tories</strong> in the north-west.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He kept Chitral under Bri&shy;tish control and constructed a road connecting Peshawar and Chitral thereby arranging for the security of Chitral.</li>
<li>The Khyber Pass, Khur Valley, Waziristan were places where small British troops were stationed by his predecessors. Lord Curzon withdrew them thereby removing the irritant to the tribal people. </li>
<li>Curzon&rsquo;s north-western frontier policy while bringing peace in the north-west, reduced a huge cost.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Afghan Policy:</strong> Lord Curzon&rsquo;s Afghan policy was condi&shy;tioned by the political and economic interests, fear of Russian expan&shy;sion in Central Asia and Persian Gulf area.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>From the very start there was an estrangement of rela&shy;tions between Afghans and the British. </li>
<li>An <strong>agreement was signed between Abdur Rahman (the then Afghan Amir) and the British</strong> under which the latter had been committed to render financial help to Afghanistan, thus securing itself from any Afghan tensions.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Policy towards Persia:</strong> It was impera&shy;tive for the British interest to maintain British influence in Persian Gulf area as Russia, France, Turkey were also try&shy;ing to extend their influence in the region. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In order to secure British influence in that region Lord Curzon personally went to the Persian Gulf area in 1903 and took firm measures to protect the Bri&shy;tish interests there.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Relation with Tibet:</strong> Lord Curzon&rsquo;s Tibet policy was also influenced by fear of Russian dominance in the region.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Tibetans had signed a trade agreement with the British in 1890 but by the time Lord Curzon had come as the Viceroy, the trade relations between Tibet and British India had com&shy;pletely ceased. </li>
<li>It was <strong>Lord Curzon&rsquo;s efforts that revived the trade relations between the two</strong> under which Tibet agreed to pay a huge indem&shy;nity to the British.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Reforms in Various Fields</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Curzon<strong> believed in a strong centralized government</strong> and powerful bureaucracy.</li>
<li><strong>Calcutta Corporation Act, 1899:</strong> The act reduced the number of elected legislatures and increased the number of nominated officials to deprive Indians from self-governance. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>28 members of the Corporation resigned in protest and it, therefore, became a government department with the English and the Anglo-Indians as the majority in it.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Economic:</strong> In 1899, the<strong> British currency was declared legal tender in India</strong> and a pound was declared equivalent to rupees fifteen. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The<strong> rate of salt-tax was reduced</strong> by Curzon, from two-and-a-half rupees per maund (1 maund is equal to approximately 37 kg) to one-and-a-third rupees per maund. </li>
<li>People with annual income of more than Rs. 500 paid the tax. Moreover, income-tax payers also received relaxation. </li>
<li>The yearly savings of the provinces were taken over by the Central Government which left no inducement to the provinces for saving. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li><strong>Curzon supported the policy of financial decentralization</strong> and abolished this practice.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Famine:</strong> When Curzon arrived in India, it was in a grip of terrible famine which affected the extensive territories in south, central and western India. Curzon provided all possible relief to the affected people.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>People were provided work on payment basis and the cultivators were exempted from the payment of revenue. </li>
<li>By 1900, when the famine was over, Curzon appointed a Commission to probe into the causes of the famine and suggest preventive measures which were later brought into consideration. </li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Agriculture:</strong> In 1904,<strong> the Co-operative Credit Societies Act</strong> was passed to induce the people to form societies for the purpose of deposits and loans, mainly to save peasants from the clutches of the money-lenders who usually charged an exorbitant rate of interest.<br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>In 1900, the<strong> Punjab Land Alienation Act</strong> was passed which <strong>restricted the transfer of lands of the peasants to money-lenders</strong> in cases of failure of payment of their debts. </li>
<li>Curzon attempted to bring about improvement in revenue administration for which he fixed three principles regarding it. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>First, the revenue was to be increased only gradually.</li>
<li>Second, every care was to be taken not to harm the agriculture while collecting the revenue.</li>
<li>Third, in case of drought or any other difficult situation, the peasants were to be helped immediately. </li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Railways:</strong> Curzon decided to improve railway facilities in India and also to make the Railway profitable to the government. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>He appointed a<strong> Railway Commission</strong> under the chairmanship of Mr. Robertson in 1901. The Commission submitted its report after two years and the recommendations were accepted by Curzon. </li>
<li>The <strong>Railway lines were increased,</strong> the<strong> Railway department was abolished</strong> and the <strong>management of the Railways was taken away from the hands of the Public Works Department and handed over to a Railway Board</strong> consisting of three members. </li>
<li>The<strong> Department of Railway was organised on a commercial basis,</strong> profit being its primary motive.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Education:</strong> In 1901, Curzon called an<strong> education conference at Shimla</strong> following which the<strong> University Commission was appointed in 1902.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The<strong> Indian Universities Act was passed in 1904</strong> upon the recommendations of the commission. </li>
<li>Gurudas Banerjee, Calcutta HC judge and a member of the commission, had given his dissent-note in the report and the Indian public despised the Act but all in vain. </li>
<li>The aim of the act was to bring the Universities under the supervision of the government and it served its purpose.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Army:</strong> In 1902, <strong>Lord Kitchener came to India as the Commander-in-Chief</strong> and carried out much needed reforms in the army. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Indian Army was divided into two commands, the<strong> Northern Command</strong> and the <strong>Southern Command.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>There were three brigades in every division of the army, two of the Indian battalions and one of the English battalions. </li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The <strong>factories were established in India to produce guns, gunpowder and rifles</strong> and the army was<strong> equipped with the latest weapons.</strong> </li>
<li>To increase the efficiency of the soldiers, every battalion was subjected to a severe test called <strong>&lsquo;the Kitchener Test&rsquo;.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Judiciary:</strong> Under the judiciary reforms, the number of judges of the Calcutta High Court was increased, the salaries of the judges of the High Courts and subordinate courts were enhanced and the Indian Code of Civil Procedure was revised.</li>
<li><strong>Monument Act, 1904:</strong> The Act<strong> established an Archaeological Department</strong> under a director. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It was assigned the <strong>responsibility of repair, restoration and protection of historical monuments.</strong> </li>
<li>Lord Curzon asked the native rulers to take similar measures in their respective states and urged the provincial governments to open museums for the safe preservation of rare objects.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Partition of Bengal</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The partition of the undivided Bengal Presidency in 1905 was<strong> one of Curzon&rsquo;s most criticised moves,</strong> which triggered widespread opposition not only in Bengal but across India, and gave impetus to the freedom movement.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Curzon&rsquo;s Role in the Partition of Bengal:</strong> </p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Bengal was the <strong>most populous province of India,</strong> with around 8 crore people. </li>
<li>It comprised the present-day states of <strong>West Bengal, Bihar, parts of Chhattisgarh, Odisha, and Assam and present day Bangladesh.</strong></li>
<li>In July 1905, Curzon announced the partition of the undivided Bengal Presidency. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>A new province of <strong>East Bengal and Assam</strong> was announced, with a population of 3.1 crore with a <strong>Muslim-Hindu ratio of 3:2.</strong> </li>
<li>The <strong>western Bengal province was overwhelmingly Hindu.</strong> </li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Although the British claimed the partition was to make the administration of the large region easier, it was clear to the Bengal Congress and patriotic Indians that Curzon&rsquo;s <strong>actual motive was to crush the increasingly loud political voices</strong> of the literate class in the province, and to<strong> provoke religious strife and opposition</strong> against them. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>However, the protests against the partition did not remain confined to this class alone.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Impact of the Partition:</strong> </p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The partition<strong> provoked great resentment and hostility all over India.</strong> All sections of the Congress, the Moderates and the Radicals, opposed it. </li>
<li>The struggle that unfolded in the response, came to be known as the <strong>Swadeshi</strong> <strong>movement,</strong> was the strongest in Bengal but with echoes elsewhere too; in deltaic Andhra for instance, it was known as the <strong>Vandemataram Movement.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The protest was to boycott British goods, especially textiles, and promote swadeshi goods. </li>
<li>There were marches and demonstrations with the protesters singing<em><strong> Vande Mataram</strong></em> to underline their patriotism and challenge the colonialists. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: disc;">
<li>Samitis emerged throughout Bengal, with several thousand volunteers.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Rabindranath Tagore led the marches at many places,</strong> and composed many patriotic songs, most famously<strong> &lsquo;Amar Sonar Bangla&rsquo;</strong> (My Golden Bengal), which is now the <strong>national anthem of Bangladesh.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The message of patriotism and Bengali nationalism was showcased in<strong> Jatras,</strong> or popular theatre.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Impact of the Protests:</strong> </p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Curzon left for Britain in 1905,</strong> but the agitation continued for many years. <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Partition was finally reversed in 1911 by Lord Hardinge</strong> in the face of unrelenting opposition.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The Swadeshi movement, which had grown significantly during the agitation, later <strong>reached nationwide proportions.</strong> <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The partition of Bengal and the highhanded behaviour of Curzon fired the national movement and the Congress.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Conclusion</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In the book &lsquo;Lion and the Tiger&rsquo; by Denis Judd, in &ldquo;The Rise and Fall of the British Raj, 1600-1947&rdquo;, he wrote: <br />
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>&ldquo;Curzon had hoped to bind India permanently to the British Raj. Ironically, his partition of Bengal, and the bitter controversy that followed, did much to revitalize Congress. </strong></li>
<li><strong>Curzon, who addressed Congress in the 1900s as &lsquo;tottering to its fall&rsquo;, ultimately left India with Congress more active and effective than at any time in its history&rdquo;.</strong> </li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Being an autocrat, Curzon&rsquo;s courses of actions had caused a great amount of resent&shy;ment among the Indians, yet considered from the point of view of efficiency, enterprise and initiative, he was one of the best governor generals of British India.</li>
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		'tag' => 'Modern Indian History',
		'[new]' => false,
		'[accessible]' => [
			[maximum depth reached]
		],
		'[dirty]' => [[maximum depth reached]],
		'[original]' => [[maximum depth reached]],
		'[virtual]' => [[maximum depth reached]],
		'[errors]' => [[maximum depth reached]],
		'[invalid]' => [[maximum depth reached]],
		'[repository]' => 'articles'
	
	}
]
$tags = [
	(int) 0 => object(Cake\ORM\Entity) {

		'id' => (int) 225,
		'tag' => 'Modern Indian History',
		'colorcode' => 'FFFFFF',
		'posturl' => 'modern-indian-history',
		'status' => (int) 1,
		'sort_order' => (int) 5,
		'type' => (int) 0,
		'relivant' => (float) 1,
		'metatitle' => 'Modern Indian History',
		'metakeyword' => 'Modern Indian History',
		'metadescription' => 'Modern Indian History',
		'addedby' => (int) 9,
		'updatedby' => (int) 9,
		'added' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
		'modified' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
		'[new]' => false,
		'[accessible]' => [
			[maximum depth reached]
		],
		'[dirty]' => [[maximum depth reached]],
		'[original]' => [[maximum depth reached]],
		'[virtual]' => [[maximum depth reached]],
		'[errors]' => [[maximum depth reached]],
		'[invalid]' => [[maximum depth reached]],
		'[repository]' => 'tags'
	
	}
]
$title = 'Article Tags'
$lastyear = (int) 2018
$year = '2021'
$i = (int) 2017
$selected = ''
$m = (int) 13
$month = 'December'

include - ROOT/plugins/Drishti/src/Template/Element/rightsection.ctp, line 115
Cake\View\View::_evaluate() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 1196
Cake\View\View::_render() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 1157
Cake\View\View::_renderElement() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 1554
Cake\View\View::element() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 668
include - ROOT/plugins/Drishti/src/Template/Element/articlebox.ctp, line 5
Cake\View\View::_evaluate() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 1196
Cake\View\View::_render() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 1157
Cake\View\View::_renderElement() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 1554
Cake\View\View::element() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 668
include - ROOT/plugins/Drishti/src/Template/Articles/tags.ctp, line 61
Cake\View\View::_evaluate() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 1196
Cake\View\View::_render() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 1157
Cake\View\View::render() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 765
Cake\Controller\Controller::render() - CORE/src/Controller/Controller.php, line 623
Cake\Http\ActionDispatcher::_invoke() - CORE/src/Http/ActionDispatcher.php, line 125
Cake\Http\ActionDispatcher::dispatch() - CORE/src/Http/ActionDispatcher.php, line 93

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