Chapter 3: From Gathering to Growing Food

The Beginning of Farming and Herding

For thousands of years, humans lived as hunter-gatherers, collecting wild plants and hunting animals.
Around 8,000 years ago, some people began to grow plants and rear animals, marking the Neolithic Revolution.
This transition from food gathering to food production was gradual and regionally varied.
People selected plants and animals that were domesticated for their desirable traits (e.g., easy to grow, tame behavior).

Domestication: Process in which people grow plants and look after animals.
Domesticated animals: Dog, sheep, goat, cattle, and pig – used for milk, meat, and labour.
Domesticated plants: Mainly wheat and barley, later rice and millet.
Earliest evidence: Found at Mehrgarh (present-day Pakistan).
Domesticated animals were often smaller than wild ones and lived close to humans.

Archaeological Site	Present-day Location	Grains / Animal Remains Found
Mehrgarh	Pakistan	Wheat, Barley, Sheep, Goat, Cattle
Koldihwa	Uttar Pradesh	Rice, Fragmentary Animal Bones
Mahagara	Uttar Pradesh	Rice, Cattle (Hoof Marks on Clay Surface)
Gufkral	Kashmir	Wheat, Lentil
Burzahom	Kashmir	Wheat, Lentil, Dog, Cattle, Sheep, Goat, Buffalo
Chirand	Bihar	Wheat, Green Gram, Barley, Buffalo, Ox
Hallur	Andhra Pradesh	Millet, Cattle, Sheep, Goat, Pig
Paiyampalli	Andhra Pradesh	Black Gram, Millet, Cattle, Sheep, Pig

Beginning of Agriculture:
- People began growing plants, which required them to stay in one place for long periods.
- Activities included watering, weeding, and protecting crops from animals and birds until the grain ripened.
- Marked the transition from nomadic to settled life.
Storage of Grain :
- After harvesting, grain was used for food and seed, so it needed to be stored safely.
- Storage methods included:
  - Large clay pots
  - Woven baskets
  - Pits dug into the ground
Development of storage indicates planned food management.
‘Storing’ Animals :
- People began rearing animals, which served as a store of food.
- Animals provided milk, meat, and could multiply naturally.
- Other uses included hides (leather), wool, manure, and help in transport or ploughing.
- Marked the beginning of animal domestication and pastoral life.
Evidence of Early Farmers and Herders :
- Sites of early agriculture and herding found across the Indian subcontinent.
- Important regions:
  - North-West (Mehrgarh)
  - Kashmir Valley (Burzahom, Gufkral)
  - East India (Chirand)
  - South India (Hallur, Paiyampalli)
- Evidence includes plant remains and animal bones.
  - Burnt grains found -possibly accidental or ritualistic burning.
- Scientists identified different crops (wheat, barley, rice, lentil, millet) and domesticated animals (cattle, sheep, goat, buffalo, pig).

Archaeologists found traces of huts or pit-houses (e.g., Burzahom, Kashmir).
Pit-houses were dug into the ground with steps leading in, suitable for cold climates.
Cooking hearths found inside and outside huts, suggesting seasonal cooking practices.
Neolithic Tools:
- New kinds of tools appeared:
  - Polished stone tools with a fine cutting edge.
  - Mortars and pestles for grinding grains and plants.
- Old Palaeolithic tools continued to be used alongside new ones.
- Some tools were also made of bone.

Archaeology cannot directly reveal customs or beliefs. Scholars study present-day tribal societies practising simple farming and herding for insights.
These groups often follow ancient traditions, suggesting continuity of cultural practices from early farming communities.

Structure: Consist of related families living together in small villages for two to three generations.
Occupations:
- Engage in hunting, gathering, farming, herding, and fishing.
- Women handle most farm work (sowing, harvesting, grinding); men manage herds; children guard crops and small flocks.
- Both sexes make pots, baskets, tools, huts, and join in music, dance, and decoration.
Leadership:
- Leaders may be experienced elders, warriors, or priests.
- Elderly women were respected for wisdom.
Culture and Beliefs: Have distinct languages, songs, stories, art, and local deities.
Social System:
- Land, water, and forests are shared tribal property.
- Society shows equality, no rich-poor divide, emphasizing collective ownership.

Location: Near the Bolan Pass, linking Indus plains with Iran and Afghanistan.
Economy:
- Agriculture and animal rearing.
- Wheat and barley cultivation was common.
Burials: Some graves had ornaments and tools, showing social differences.
Crafts:
- Evidence of beads, shells, ornaments, and terracotta figurines.
- Indicates emergence of specialized craftspeople.
Trade: Linked with distant regions via Bolan Pass trade route.

Location: Situated in the hills near the Brahmaputra Valley, close to routes leading into China and Myanmar.
Findings:
- Discovery of stone tools, including mortars and pestles.
- Indicates that people were probably growing grain and preparing food.
- Presence of jadeite, a stone likely brought from China, suggesting long-distance contact or trade.
- Finds also include tools made of fossil wood (ancient wood hardened into stone) and pottery.

Location: A major Neolithic site in present-day Turkey.
Trade and Exchange: Materials like flint from Syria, cowries from the Red Sea, and shells from the Mediterranean Sea were found.
- Indicates long-distance trade and exchange networks during the Neolithic period.
Transportation:There were no carts; goods were carried on pack animals (like cattle) or by people.

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