Chapter 2: On the Trail of the Earliest People

• 07 Nov 2025

The Earliest People: Why Were They on the Move? 

• People living in the Indian subcontinent about 2 million years ago are called hunter-gatherers. They hunted animals, fished, and gathered wild fruits, roots, nuts, and seeds. 
• They were nomadic because: 
  • Local resources of plants and animals got exhausted if they stayed in a place for long. 
  • Animals they hunted moved, so they had to follow them. 
  • Seasonal changes affected the growth of plants. 
  • Water scarcity during dry seasons forced them to move. 

Bhimbetka Caves 

• Located in present-day Madhya Pradesh, Bhimbetka is a major habitation site of early humans. 
• The site consists of natural caves and rock shelters found mainly in the Vindhyas and Deccan Plateau, near the Narmada Valley. 
• These shelters were chosen as they provided protection from rain, heat, and wind, offering a safe and comfortable living environment. 
• The caves also contain rock paintings and archaeological evidence, revealing details of prehistoric human life and activities. 

Making Stone Tools 

• Stone Tools were made using two different techniques, the pebble from which the tool was to be made was called core 
  • Stone on Stone: Another stone was used to strike off flakes from the core stone till the required shape was obtained 
  • Pressure Flaking: Core was placed on a firm surface then hammer stone was used to carve desired shape.  

Discovery and Use of Fire 

• Evidence of ash in caves (like at Kurnool) shows early use of fire. 
• Fire was used for: 
  • Cooking and roasting meat 
  • Providing light 
  • Scaring away animals 

Changing Environment and the Beginning of Farming & Herding 

• Around 12,000 years ago, climate change led to the growth of grasslands. 
• Grasslands supported more animals, leading to herding and domestication. 
• People began domesticating goats, sheep, cattle, and pigs. 
• They also began cultivating plants like wheat, barley, and rice. 

The Three Stone Ages 

• Palaeolithic Period (Old Stone Age): 
  • Derived from Greek words ‘palaeo’ (old) and ‘lithos’ (stone). 
  • Marks the earliest phase of human history (about 2 million–12,000 years ago). 
  • Divided into Lower, Middle, and Upper Palaeolithic stages. 
  • Characterized by stone tools, covering 99% of human history 
• Mesolithic Period (Middle Stone Age): 
  • Lasted from about 12,000 to 10,000 years ago. 
  • Marked by environmental changes and appearance of microliths (tiny stone tools). 
  • Microliths were often fixed to handles of wood or bone to make saws and sickles. 
  • Older stone tools continued to be used alongside new ones. 
• Neolithic Period (New Stone Age): 
  • It began around 10,000 years ago. 
  • The term Neolithic means ‘new stone’, marking further advancement in tool-making and lifestyle. 
• Archaeologists often use present-day names of sites since ancient names are unknown. 

Cave Paintings 

• Found in many habitation caves of early humans. 
• Best examples from Madhya Pradesh and southern Uttar Pradesh. 
• Depict wild animals drawn with accuracy and skill. 
• Indicate artistic ability and observation of nature by prehistoric people. 

Division of Work (Who Did What?): 

• Early humans hunted, gathered plant produce, made stone tools, and painted cave walls. 
• No definite evidence to determine whether men or women performed specific tasks. 
• Possible that both men and women shared activities, or different tasks were gender-specific in different regions. 

Ostriches in India: 

• Ostriches existed in India during the Palaeolithic period. 
• Large quantities of ostrich egg shells discovered at Patne (Maharashtra). 
• Engraved designs and beads made from egg shells suggest artistic and ornamental use. 
• Indicates symbolic behavior and early use of decorative items.

• Hunsgi : 
  • Located in Karnataka; an important early Palaeolithic site. 
  • Evidence of habitation-cum-factory sites — where tools were made and used. 
  • Smaller sites show signs of tool production only. 
  • Many sites were found near springs; limestone used for tool-making, as it was locally available. 
  • Demonstrates adaptation to environment and organized tool production.

Cave Paintings in France

• Found in France, discovered by four school children over a hundred years ago. 
• Dated between 20,000–10,000 years ago (Upper Palaeolithic period). 
• Depict wild animals like horses, aurochs, bison, woolly rhinoceros, reindeer, and bear. 
• Painted using minerals such as ochre (iron ore) and charcoal for bright colours. 
• Possibly created for ceremonial or ritual purposes, especially related to hunting practices.