Declining Household Savings & Rising Liabilities

Source: BL  

Why in News? 

India’s household savings pattern is undergoing a significant transformation, raising concerns about long-term economic stability and domestic capital formation. 

What is the Current Trend in Household Savings in India? 

• Falling Gross Savings Rate: India’s gross domestic savings rate fell from 34.6% of GDP in 2011–12 to 29.7% in 2022–23, marking a four-decade low, while household net savings, which traditionally made up 60% of total savings, have also declined. 
• Rising Household Debt: Household liabilities peaked at 6.4% of GDP (FY24), near the 2007 high (6.6%), driven by borrowing for consumption, housing, and education. 
• Saving Pattern: Physical savings (gold, real estate) increased from 59.7% in 2019–20 to 71.5% in 2023–24, while financial savings declined from 40.3% to 28.5%.  
  • Within financial savings, bank deposits dropped from 58% (FY12) to 37% (FY23), while investments in equities, and mutual funds nearly doubled (Rs 1.02 lakh crore in FY21 to Rs 2.02 lakh crore in FY23). 
• Urban vs. Rural Divide: Urban households increasingly invest in financial instruments (mutual funds, equities) due to better financial access, while rural households continue to prefer cash and physical assets, highlighting gaps in financial inclusion. 
• Post-Pandemic & Inflationary Pressures: While Covid-19 initially boosted savings due to reduced spending, the trend reversed as the economy reopened, with high inflation eroding disposable incomes and low real interest rates making traditional savings like fixed deposits less attractive. 

What are the Implications of Low Household Savings Rate and Rising Household Debt? 

• Reduced Domestic Capital Formation: Reduced household savings, a key source for investment and capital formation, may slow GDP growth and increase dependence on foreign capital (FDI, external borrowing), heightening external vulnerabilities. 
• Consumption-Driven Growth: Lower savings reflect higher consumption spending, which can boost short-term demand but reduce long-term investment capacity. It risks debt-fueled growth bubbles like the 2008 US subprime crisis. 
• Pressure on Fiscal and Monetary Policy: A fall in private savings may compel the government to boost public savings through higher taxes or spending cuts, while the RBI faces a trade-off—low interest rates discourage savings, whereas high rates raise borrowing costs. 
• Rising Household Debt Stress: Rising household debt, especially through unsecured loans, credit cards, and personal loans, increases the risk of loan defaults and potential debt traps if incomes don’t rise proportionally, leading to higher Non-Performing Assets (NPAs). 
• Social and Inequality Concerns: Lower savings weaken household emergency resilience and increase reliance on borrowing for essentials, leading to long-term financial instability, while declining provident/pension savings and a shift to market-linked investments raise the risk of retirement insecurity. 

What Strategies can be Adopted to Maintain Sustainable Household Savings in India? 

• Improve Financial Literacy & Awareness: Expand financial education programs (schools, SHGs, digital platforms) to teach saving habits, investment risks, and debt management, while promoting low-risk savings instruments (Sukanya Samriddhi, post-office schemes) among low-income households. 
  • Leverage UPI, Jan Dhan, and e-RUPI for small-ticket savings (e.g., Recurring Deposits via apps). 
• Tax & Interest Rate Incentives: Increasing tax deductions for long-term savings, and introducing inflation-indexed bonds can incentivize secure investments, protecting purchasing power, and promoting financial stability.  
• Strengthen Social Security Systems: Expand pension coverage (Atal Pension Yojana, NPS) for informal sector workers and offer subsidized retirement plans to reduce old-age dependency risks for low-income groups. 
• Responsible Lending Regulations: Implement strict RBI norms on unsecured loans (credit cards, personal loans), including Debt-to-Income (DTI) ratio caps and transparent loan pricing, to prevent reckless borrowing and debt traps.  
  • Impose higher risk weights on luxury loans and promote good debt education, home loans) over bad debt (impulsive spending). 
• Encourage Productive Investments: Introduce gold monetization schemes like Sovereign Gold Bonds to unlock idle assets, and implement affordable housing policies to curb real estate speculation.  
  • Offer tax incentives for long-term equity holdings (extend LTCG benefits), while regulating speculative trading. 

Conclusion 

India’s declining household savings and rising debt threaten economic stability. To ensure sustainability, policies must boost financial literacy, incentivize savings, regulate reckless lending, and expand social security. Balancing consumption-led growth with prudent savings and debt management is crucial for long-term resilience, inclusive development, and reducing vulnerabilities in an evolving financial landscape. 

Drishti Mains Questions: India’s declining household savings rate poses risks to long-term economic growth." Analyse the causes and suggest policy measures to revive sustainable savings.

Maharashtra’s Rollback of Hindi as Third Language

Source:TH 

Why in News?  

The Maharashtra government scrapped its government resolutions (GRs) mandating Hindi as a compulsory third language from Grades 1 to 5 in Marathi and English medium schools.  

• Though the move was in line with National Education Policy (NEP), 2020, which promotes multilingualism through the three-language formula, it was withdrawn due to concerns over linguistic identity, cultural hegemony, and the feasibility of implementation. 
• The government has appointed a committee under renowned economist Dr. Narendra Jadhav to study the three-language policy. 

What are the Issues in Implementing the Three Language Policy? 

• Pedagogical Challenges: Neuroscientific research supports early exposure to multiple languages (ages 2–8), but this does not equate to formal classroom instruction.  
  • For effective learning, children must first develop foundational literacy in their mother tongue before taking on additional languages. 
  • Introducing three languages from Grade 1 may weaken core literacy in the primary language. 
• Federal Concerns: Education is a subject on the Concurrent List. Mandating Hindi as a compulsory language without proper state consultation undermines federal spirit in educational matters. 
  • The Three Language policy has been criticized for allegedly promoting Hindi at the cost of regional languages. In states like Tamil Nadu, it was seen as an act of linguistic centralization. 
  • Rooted in the Dravidian movement, Tamil Nadu adopted a two-language policy Tamil and English in 1968 rejecting the three-language formula. This stance continues today. In 2019, Tamil Nadu’s strong opposition led to the removal of mandatory Hindi from the draft NEP, 2020.  
• Deviation from NEP 2020 Intent: NEP 2020 primarily emphasizes learning in the mother tongue (referred to as ‘R1’) and an additional second language (R2- a language other than R1), not three languages, in early years. 
• Cultural and Societal Concerns: Civil society groups argue that compulsory Hindi may discourage the use of local tribal or minority languages. 
  • Critics termed this a "backdoor imposition of Hindi", questioning the opaque decision-making. Critics have pointed out that some state-level policies enforcing Hindi were introduced without adequate consultation with expert language committees or public stakeholders. 
• Administrative and Infrastructure Issues: Many schools, particularly in rural areas, lack qualified teachers for all three languages. This results in uneven quality of instruction. 
  • Designing age-appropriate, integrated curricula for three languages at the foundational level is difficult. It may overburden both students and teachers, leading to rote learning and poor comprehension.

What Does the NEP 2020 Lay Down on Language? 

• Medium of Instruction: NEP 2020 recommends the use of mother tongue, local, or regional languages as the medium of instruction until at least Grade 5, ideally till Grade 8 and beyond. 
  • NEP 2020 promotes bilingual teaching, encouraging the use of the home language or mother tongue along with English as mediums of instruction, especially in early grades. 
• Multilingualism: The current three-language formula proposed by NEP 2020 has considerably departed from NEP, 1968 which emphasised study of Hindi, English and a modern Indian language (preferably one of the southern languages) in Hindi-speaking States and Hindi, English and a regional language in non-Hindi speaking States.  
  • In contrast, the NEP 2020 states that it provides greater flexibility in the three-language formula, and that no language will be imposed on any State.  
  • It also encourages the inclusion of classical languages, such as Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam, and others, as part of the three-language formula. 
• Foreign Languages: The NEP 2020 introduces the option for students to learn foreign languages, such as Korean, Japanese, French, German, and Spanish, at the secondary level.  
  • The Central Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) has outlined that students will learn two Indian languages until Class 10, with the option to choose one Indian language and one foreign language in Classes 11 and 12.

What are the Constitutional Provisions Regarding Language? 

• Article 29: Protects the right of citizens to conserve their distinct language and culture. 
• Article 343: Declares Hindi in Devanagari script as the official language of the Union; allows continued use of English for official purposes for 15 years from 1950 (later extended by legislation). 
• Article 346: Governs the official language for communication between states and with the Union. Hindi may be used if the states involved agree. 
• Article 347: Allows the President to recognize a language as an official language of a state or part thereof, if a substantial section of the population demands it. 
• Article 350A: Directs states to provide primary education in the mother tongue for linguistic minority children. 
• Article 350B: Provides for a Special Officer for Linguistic Minorities, appointed by the President, to report on the implementation of safeguards for linguistic minorities. 
• Article 351: Obligates the Union to promote Hindi while enriching it with elements from other Indian languages. 
• Eighth Schedule: Lists 22 officially recognized languages, including Hindi, Bengali, Tamil, Telugu, Urdu, and others, referred to as "Scheduled Languages." 

What are the Arguments For and Against Three-Language Policy? 

Arguments For 

• Promotes Multilingualism and Cognitive Growth: Learning multiple languages improves memory, problem-solving, and overall academic performance. 
• Enhances children's ability to think flexibly and understand diverse perspectives. 
• Supports National Integration: Three-Language Policy encourages communication across linguistic groups. It helps students from different regions understand and respect India’s cultural and linguistic diversity. 
• Improved Job Prospects: Knowing multiple languages boosts opportunities in fields such as tourism, technology, international relations, and media. 

Arguments Against 

• Political Sensitivities: In some states, the policy is seen as Hindi imposition, fuelling regional identity politics and the "sons of the soil" sentiment, which prioritizes local rights, language and culture. 
• Burden on Students and Schools: Students already struggle with basic literacy; a third mandatory language may overload them. Children from monolingual homes may find it stressful or confusing. 
• Implementation Challenges:  Efforts to introduce unrelated languages (e.g., Tamil in Haryana) have failed due to poor planning and lack of demand. 

What Should be the Guiding Principles for an Inclusive and Effective Language Policy in Education? 

• Institutional Preparedness: Prioritise foundational literacy, teaching quality, and learning outcomes over merely adding languages. 
• Balanced Multilingualism: Implementation of the three-language policy should not default to Hindi in all non-Hindi-speaking states.  
  • Instead, promote reciprocal language learning e.g., North Indian students learning Dravidian or tribal languages in Kendriya Vidyalayas. This would reflect mutual respect, not majoritarian privilege. 
• Link Language Learning to Skills and Employability: Integrate language teaching with vocational and digital skills, especially for languages like English and Hindi that offer national mobility.  
  • Similarly, regional language proficiency should be rewarded in state-level employment and public services. 
• Promote Language as a Tool of Social Justice: Language learning should empower the learner, not become a site for political contestation.  
  • Prioritise language equity over language hierarchy recognising every Indian language as a resource, not a barrier. 

Drishti Mains Question: Language in education must empower, not impose. Evaluate this statement.

River Pollution in India

Source: IE   

Why in News? 

The Delhi government has prioritized Yamuna river pollution clean-up, aligning with the Namami Gange Programme (NGP). Its role as a Ganga tributary facilitates the alignment of local efforts with national goals for the cleaning of the Ganga River and its tributaries. 

What are the Causes of River Pollution in India? 

• Industrial Pollution: Industries like textiles, tanneries, and chemicals discharge toxic effluents (e.g., lead, mercury, arsenic) into rivers such as the Ganga (Kanpur), Yamuna (Delhi), and Damodar (Jharkhand). 
  • Many factories bypass or misuse effluent treatment plants (ETPs), often diluting waste to falsely meet regulatory norms. 
• Agricultural Runoff: Runoff from fertilizers and pesticides leads to nitrate and phosphate pollution, causing algal blooms and harming aquatic life, as seen in Punjab’s Sutlej River. 
  • Stubble burning in Punjab-Haryana releases ash that enters rivers through rainwater runoff, further degrading water quality. 
• Religious & Cultural Practices: Idol immersion and cremation rituals pollute rivers with Plaster-of-Paris, toxic paints, plastic, polythene, and floral waste, especially at ghats like Varanasi’s Ganga. 
• Solid Waste & Plastic Dumping: India ranks as the world’s largest plastic emitter, with significant amounts clogging rivers like Mumbai’s Mithi River. 
  • Toxic runoff from landfills like Delhi’s Ghazipur pollutes both groundwater and nearby rivers. 
• Thermal & Radioactive Pollution: Thermal plant discharges (e.g., Farakka, NTPC) and uranium mining in Jaduguda (Jharkhand) pollute rivers, harming aquatic life with heat and radioactive waste. 
• Climate‑Related Stress: Erratic rainfall and prolonged low‑flow periods concentrate pollutants, while extreme storms flush large contaminant loads into rivers. 

What is the Namami Gange Programme? 

• About: It is a flagship programme by the Ministry of Jal Shakti aimed at rejuvenating the Ganga River and its tributaries by reducing pollution, improving water quality, and restoring the river’s ecosystem. 
• Implementation: It provides for a five-tier structure at the national, state, and district levels to ensure the effective management and rejuvenation of the Ganga River. 
  • National Ganga Council: Headed by the Prime Minister, this is the apex body overseeing the overall efforts for Ganga rejuvenation. 
  • Empowered Task Force (ETF): Chaired by the Union Minister of Jal Shakti, it focuses on coordinated action for cleaning and rejuvenating the Ganga. 
  • National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG): Functions as the implementing agency for various Ganga-related projects. 
  • State Ganga Committees: Responsible for state-level implementation of river conservation measures within their respective jurisdictions. 
  • District Ganga Committees: Set up in each district along the Ganga and its tributaries, these committees work at the grassroots level to execute local interventions. 
• Main Pillars of NGP: 
  • Sewerage Treatment Infrastructure: Aimed at effectively managing wastewater to reduce river pollution. 
  • River-Surface Cleaning: Focused on removing solid waste and pollutants from the river’s surface. 
  • Afforestation: Involves planting trees and restoring green cover along the riverbanks. 
  • Industrial Effluent Monitoring: Ensures protection of the river from harmful industrial discharges. 
  • River-Front Development: Promotes community engagement and tourism through the creation of public spaces along the river. 
  • Biodiversity: Aims to enhance ecological health and support diverse biological communities in and around the river. 
  • Public Awareness: Focuses on educating citizens about the importance of river conservation. 
  • Ganga Gram: Targets the development of villages along the main stem of the Ganga as model villages with improved sanitation and sustainability. 
• Key Interventions:  
  • Pollution Abatement (Nirmal Ganga): Involves setting up sewage treatment plants (STPs) and minimizing industrial and domestic waste discharge to ensure cleaner waters. 
  • Improving Ecology and Flow (Aviral Ganga): Focuses on restoring natural river flow, enhancing biodiversity, and promoting water conservation practices. 
  • Strengthening People-River Connect (Jan Ganga): Aims to promote community participation, raise public awareness, and involve local stakeholders in conservation efforts. 
  • Facilitating Research and Policy (Gyan Ganga): Supports scientific research, encourages academic studies, and aids in crafting evidence-based policies for river management. 
• Key Achievements:  
  • Pollution Abatement: Sewage treatment capacity surpassed the pre-2014 capacity by over 30 times. 
  • Improvement in Water Quality: Water quality improved in Uttar Pradesh from BOD 10-20 mg/l (2015) to 3-6 mg/l (2022), in Bihar from 20-30 mg/l (2015) to 6-10 mg/l (2022). 
    • Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) indicates the amount of oxygen required by microorganisms to decompose organic matter in water. A higher BOD signifies greater pollution, while a lower BOD reflects cleaner water. 
  • Impact on Biodiversity: The Gangetic river dolphin population has grown, with new sightings reported in stretches like Bithura to Rasula Ghat (Prayagraj), and in the Babai and Bagmati Rivers. 
• Global Recognition: In 2022, the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021-2030) recognized the Namami Gange Programme (NGP) as one of the Top 10 World Restoration Flagship Initiatives. 

What Steps can be Taken to Mitigate River Pollution? 

• Enforce Strict Industrial Regulations: Enforce Zero Liquid Discharge (ZLD) for polluting industries, mandate Effluent Treatment Plants (ETPs) with real-time monitoring, and impose strict penalties for illegal dumping and non-compliance. 
• Manage Agricultural Runoff: Promote organic farming and sustainable practices, establish vegetative buffer zones near rivers, and regulate chemical use through awareness and eco-friendly subsidies. 
• Improve Solid Waste Management: Strengthen waste collection, segregation, and scientific disposal, prevent riverbank dumping with fencing and patrolling, and ban single-use plastics with strict enforcement. 
• Restore River Ecosystems: Restore riverine ecology through desilting, reforestation, and wetland revival; protect floodplains from encroachment, and promote riparian buffers with native vegetation. 
• Use Technology and Innovation: Adopt AI and IoT sensors for pollution monitoring, use GIS mapping and drones to detect illegal dumping, and promote water-tech startups for innovative treatment solutions. 

Conclusion 

The Yamuna clean-up aligns with India’s broader river rejuvenation mission under the Namami Gange Programme. India’s river pollution crisis demands urgent action—stricter industrial regulations, sustainable agriculture, better waste management, and ecosystem restoration. While initiatives like Namami Gange show progress, success depends on enforcement, technology, and public participation. A collaborative, multi-pronged approach can revive our rivers, ensuring clean water for future generations. 

Drishti Mains Question: What are the major causes of river pollution in India? Suggest policy measures to address them.

India’s Infrastructure Challenge

Source: TH 

Why in News? 

The collapse of the Mahisagar River Bridge in Vadodara due to structural failure, killing 20 people, highlights growing concerns over infrastructure quality amid similar incidents nationwide. 

What are the Reasons Behind India’s Poor Infrastructure? 

• Corruption & Substandard Materials: Contractor mafia and kickbacks (reward for awarding the deal) allow politically linked firms to use poor-quality materials for higher profits. 
  • Ghost projects and fund misuse, especially in Bihar, cause weak structures, like Purnea’s illegal ghost bridge built for a land scam. 
• Poor Maintenance & Overloading: Neglect of old bridges, like those in Morbi and over the Indrayani River, led to collapse due to lack of inspection and reinforcement. 
  • Overloading, as seen in Assam’s Harang Bridge, causes failures when traffic rules are ignored and heavy vehicles go unchecked. 
• Engineering Flaws: Poor planning, seen in Bhopal’s Aishbagh rail overbridge and Indore’s under-construction bridge, results in unsafe infrastructure. 
  • Lack of expert oversight and technical review leads to structural flaws in many projects. 
• Lack of Accountability: Poor accountability follows disasters like Morbi and Mahisagar, with officials and contractors rarely punished. 
  • Lax safety regulations and the absence of strict bridge audits let unsafe structures remain in use. 
• Climate & Environmental Factors: In Assam and Bihar, floods and river erosion weaken bridge foundations, yet preventive action is lacking. 
  • Unplanned urbanization in cities like Mumbai and Pune leads to stressed infrastructure. 
• Political Interference: Rushed inaugurations of incomplete projects (like the Palava Bridge), bypassing safety checks. 
  • State-centre mismanagement, including bureaucratic delays and fund disputes, stalls many infrastructure projects. 

What is the Current State of Infrastructure Development in India? 

• Highways and Roads: India holds the position of having the world’s second-largest road network (after the United States), with National Highways extending to 1,46,145 km as of 2024. 
• Railways: India’s first bullet train project, designed for speeds of 280 km/h, is expected to be completed by 2026. 
  • The past decade has seen a decline in consequential accidents, despite notable incidents like the Kanchenjunga Express crash. 
• Civil Aviation: India is the world’s third-largest domestic aviation market, with the number of operational airports rising from 74 in 2014 to 157 in 2024. 
  • Under the Regional Connectivity Scheme (RCS)–UDAN, millions of passengers have benefited by December 2024. 
• Maritime Sector: India aims to rank among the top five shipbuilding nations by 2047.  
  • Major projects like the Galathea Bay mega port and the India-Middle East-Europe Economic Corridor are underway to enhance trade connectivity. 
• Urban Metro: The metro network expanded from 248 km in 2014 to 945 km by 2024, now operating in 21 cities and serving 1 crore daily commuters. 
  • The Namo Bharat train on the Delhi-Meerut RRTS corridor strengthens regional connectivity and improves urban transportation. 
• Ropeways Development: Under the Parvatmala Pariyojana, around 60 km of ropeway projects were slated for award by FY 2024-25, including the Varanasi Urban Ropeway and the Gaurikund-Kedarnath Ropeway. 

How can India Improve and Strengthen Its Infrastructure Development? 

• Strict Quality Control: All major infrastructure projects like bridges, highways, and dams should undergo independent audits by institutions like IITs, with lifetime bans for firms linked to poor construction. 
  • Implement real-time fund tracking using blockchain to curb embezzlement and ensure transparency. 
• Adopt Advanced Engineering & Materials: Use high-quality materials like fiber-reinforced polymers and corrosion-resistant alloys, inspired by Japan’s earthquake-proof bridges, for flood-prone areas like Assam and Bihar. 
  • Adopt AI and IoT-based sensors for real-time monitoring of bridges to detect cracks, stress, and overloading. 
• Shift Focus from Construction to Maintenance: India must adopt a proactive maintenance approach using Bridge Management Systems (BMS), ensuring a fixed share of capital expenditure is allocated for Operations & Maintenance. 
  • States should implement structured maintenance policies like Bihar’s Bridge Maintenance Policy 2025, featuring IIT audits and sensor-based monitoring. 
• Strengthen Infrastructure Planning: Utilize the GIS-based National Master Plan under PM Gati Shakti for integrated, data-driven infrastructure planning, and deploy AI tools for predictive planning, logistics optimization, and bottleneck detection. 
• Deepen Infrastructure Financing: Maintain high public capital expenditure while encouraging PPP models, and monetise brownfield assets to fund new infrastructure. 
  • Promote municipal bonds, InvITs, green bonds, and blended finance to attract long-term institutional investments. 

Conclusion 

India’s infrastructure faces a paradox: rapid expansion alongside glaring failures. While highways, metros, and aviation have advanced, recurring bridge collapses expose deep systemic flaws in quality control, corruption, and maintenance. Urgent reforms in planning, execution, and transparency are essential to ensure inclusive and structurally sound development. 

Drishti Mains Question Highlight the key reasons behind recurring infrastructure failures in India, with recent examples.

Maratha Military Landscapes Added to UNESCO World Heritage List

Source: TH 

Why in News?

At the 47^th Session of the World Heritage Committee (WHC), India’s official nomination for the 2024-25 cycle, the Maratha Military Landscapes, is inscribed on the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage List. 

• This makes it India’s 44^th World Heritage Site, following the 2024 inscription of the Moidams of Charaideo, Assam.  

What is the Maratha Military Landscape? 

• About: The Maratha Military Landscapes of India include 12 major forts, mostly in Maharashtra and one in Tamil Nadu, built or expanded between the late 17th and early 19th centuries.  
  • Strategically located in coastal and hilly areas, the forts formed a strong defence system that supported Maratha military power, trade, and territorial control.  
• 12 Major Forts: 
  • Maharashtra: Salher, Shivneri, Lohgad, Khanderi, Raigad, Rajgad, Pratapgad, Suvarnadurg, Panhala, Vijaydurg, Sindhudurg 
  • Tamil Nadu: Gingee Fort 
• Classification by Terrain:  
  • Hill Forts: Salher, Shivneri, Lohgad, Raigad, Rajgad, Gingee. 
  • Hill-Forest Fort: Pratapgad. 
  • Hill-Plateau Fort: Panhala. 
  • Coastal Fort: Vijaydurg. 
  • Island Forts: Khanderi, Suvarnadurg, Sindhudurg. 
• Protection: 8 forts (Shivneri, Lohgad, Raigad, Suvarnadurg, Panhala, Vijaydurg, Sindhudurg and Gingee) are protected by the Archaeological Survey of India (ASI). 
  • 4 forts (Salher, Rajgad, Khanderi and Pratapgarh) are under the Directorate of Archaeology and Museums, Government of Maharashtra. 
• World Heritage Site Recognition:  The Maratha Military Landscape was nominated under UNESCO criteria (iv) and (vi) for its architectural, technological, and cultural significance, as well as its links to historic events.  
  • Such inscriptions aim to protect and promote heritage with Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) across 196 countries. 

What are the UNESCO World Heritage Selection Criteria? 

• Criteria for Selection: To be listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, a place must have OUV and meet at least one of ten selection criteria. These are outlined in the Operational Guidelines, which serve as the main reference for implementing the World Heritage Convention.  
  • Originally, there were six cultural and four natural criteria, but since 2005, a single unified set of ten criteria is used. The guidelines are updated regularly to reflect changes in how heritage is understood and protected. 
  • After selecting a site from the Tentative List, the State submits a detailed nomination file. The World Heritage Centre reviews it before sending it for evaluation. 
• Evaluation: A nominated property is independently evaluated by Advisory Bodies mandated by the World Heritage Convention: ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites), IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature). 
  • ICCROM (International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property), an intergovernmental organization that provides the Committee with expert advice on cultural site conservation and training activities. 
• Inscription: After evaluation, the World Heritage Committee meets annually to decide on site inscriptions. It may also defer decisions and seek more information from States Parties. 
  • India became a member of the World Heritage Committee from 2021-25.  

Reversal on ELV Fuel Ban

Source: TH 

The Delhi government has rolled back its fuel ban on end-of-life vehicles (ELVs)-Petrol cars over 15 years and diesel vehicles over 10 years as directed by the Commission for Air Quality Management (CAQM). 

• CAQM is a statutory body for ensuring coordinated action, scientific research, and effective resolution of air pollution issues in the Delhi NCR and adjoining areas.

Legal Mandate for Fuel Ban on ELVs: 

• NGT Orders (2015): NGT banned diesel vehicles over 10 years and petrol vehicles over 15 years in Delhi-NCR and  barred their re-registration. 
• Supreme Court (SC) Ruling (2018): SC in MC Mehta vs Union Of India, 2018 case upheld NGT orders and permitted impounding of non-compliant vehicles. 
• Motor Vehicles Act, 1988: Under the Motor Vehicles Act, 1988, private vehicle registration is valid for 15 years, after which renewal is required. 
• Central Motor Vehicles Rules, 1989: Expired registration makes a vehicle legally unfit for road use. 
• Environment Protection (End-of-Life Vehicles) Rules, 2025: Mandates scrapping of vehicles within 180 days of registration expiry. 

State of Air pollution in India: 

• Air pollution poses a severe public health challenge in India, contributing to approximately 1.67 million deaths each year, according to the WHO, and is responsible for 17% of all deaths nationwide, as reported by the State of Global Air 2023. 
• The 2024 World Air Quality Report (IQAir) ranks India as the 5th most polluted country, with an average PM2.5 level of 50.6 µg/m³, ten times above the WHO safe limit. Delhi remains the world’s most polluted capital.

Read More: India's Air Pollution Crisis

Sierra Leone's First UNESCO Site Gola-Tiwai Complex

Source: TH 

Sierra Leone’s Gola-Tiwai complex, comprising the Gola Rainforest National Park (GRNP) and the Tiwai Island Wildlife Sanctuary, has been inscribed as its first United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site, due to decades-long conservation efforts by a non-governmental organization Environmental Foundation for Africa (EFA). 

• Tiwai Island, located on the Moa River, spans just 12 sq. km and hosts 11 species of primates, including endangered western chimpanzees and king colobus monkeys. 
  • Tiwai now serves as a biodiversity research hub and model for community-based conservation in West Africa. 
• GRNP is Sierra Leone’s largest tropical rainforest, rich in biodiversity, including pygmy hippopotamuses and African forest elephants. 
• EFA was established in 1992 and began conservation efforts in Tiwai in the early 2000s, especially after damage from Sierra Leone’s 1991–2002 civil war. 
  • During the war, deforestation, poaching, and illegal logging nearly destroyed Tiwai, but EFA led reconstruction, community engagement, and biodiversity protection. 
  • Despite the Ebola outbreak (2014), Covid-19, and extreme weather, EFA protected Tiwai and surrounding forests from ecological collapse. 
• The UNESCO recognition is a landmark for Sierra Leone, validating grassroots conservation models rooted in local empowerment and ecological resilience. 

Read more: Sierra Leone

Enumeration of Andaman and Nicobar Tribes

Source: TH 

The planned 16^th Census of India (2026–27) will include an enumeration of the six major indigenous tribes of the Andaman and Nicobar (A & N) Islands namely Great Andamanese, Onge, Jarawa, Sentinelese, Shompen, and Nicobarese. Except for the Nicobarese, all others are classified as Particularly Vulnerable Tribal Groups (PVTGs). 

• Great Andamanese: Once the largest tribe in the Andaman Islands, the Great Andamanese now number just 43 (Census 2001), settled on Strait Island. Their decline began with diseases like influenza post the establishment of the Penal Settlement. 
  • Historically, they are known for resisting British intrusion in the Battle of Aberdeen (1859). 
  • They are no longer nomadic, though occasional hunting and fishing continue. 
• Onges: One of India’s most primitive hunter-gatherer tribes, live in Little Andaman, mainly at Dugong Creek and South Bay. 
  • As per Census 2001, the Onges are a semi-nomadic tribe with a population of 96. Traditionally dependent on nature, they now receive government aid and are known for their canoe-making and crafts. 
• Jarawa: They are a nomadic, hunting-gathering tribe living along the western coast of Middle and South Andaman. As per Census 2011, their population is 380. 
• Sentinelese: A hunting and gathering tribe, inhabit North Sentinel Island and remain hostile to outsiders. Though brief friendly contact was made in 1991, they largely avoid interaction.  As per Census 2001, their population was 39. 
• Shompens: Shompen have Mongoloid features, unlike the other Negroid-featured tribes (like Great Andamanese, Onge, Jarawa, and Sentinelese) 
  • Shompens inhabit Great Nicobar, They are divided into Mawa Shompens (coastal, river valley dwellers) and hostile Shompens (interior forest areas).  
  • They are highly isolated, semi-nomadic hunter-gatherers. The estimated population of the Shompen tribe was 229 as per the 2011 Census data. 
• Nicobarese:  Nicobarese live across 19 Nicobar Islands. They are of Mongoloid origin, with a population of over 27,000. Society is organized into six territorial groups and follows a patriarchal joint family system called Tuhet, which collectively owns land and resources. 

Read more:  Reimagining Andaman and Nicobar Islands

Grey Seal

Source: TH 

As climate change, pollution, and overfishing threaten the Grey seal (Halichoerus grypus) in the Baltic Sea, Lithuania has launched a rehabilitation effort to support their survival and restore population balance. 

• Habitat & Range: Gray seals live in coastal waters of the North Atlantic, from the US and Canada to the Baltic Sea and parts of Europe. They haul out on rocky coasts, islands, sandbars, and ice. 
• Appearance: Males can grow up to 10 feet long, females are smaller. Males have large, horse-like heads. Pups are born with white lanugo fur that helps retain warmth. 
• Behavior & Diet: They gather in large groups for mating and molting, but often live alone or in small groups otherwise. Their diet includes fish, squid, and sometimes seabirds. 
  • The seals, being apex predators, absorb high levels of pollutants, making them indicators of marine ecosystem health. 
• Breeding & Lifespan: Gray seals live 25–35 years. Females give birth to a single pup after an 11-month pregnancy. 
• Conservation Status: The Baltic Sea subpopulation of grey seal is listed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List. 
• Threats: Grey seals in the Baltic Sea face major threats from receding ice cover, pollution, shrinking fish stocks, and disease. 

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