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India Bombs Jaish-e-Muhammad Camp in Pakistan

Twelve days after the Pulwama attack, in an aerial surgical strike, the Indian Air Force (IAF) has bombed the Jaish-e-Mohammad’s (JeM)...

27 Feb 2019 News Analysis
Global Leaders Adopt ‘Delhi Declaration’ on Digital Health

Recently, as part of the high-level summit, the ministers and delegation adopted the Delhi Declaration on digital health for sustainable...

27 Feb 2019 News Analysis
Looming Threat to Food Security

A recent report titled “State of the World’s Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture” has warned of a growing threat to global food...

27 Feb 2019 News Analysis
Angkor City in Cambodia

A study has suggested that the Angkor, the ancient capital of the Khmer empire, appears to have suffered a gradual decline rather than a...

27 Feb 2019 News Analysis
Indian Diaspora

Why in News? Recently India celebrated its 15th Pravasi Bhartiya Diwas from 21st January to 23rd January. India every year celebrates its Pravasi...

27 Feb 2019 Paper 2
Important Fact For Prelims (27th February 2019)

Exercise Sampriti 2019 The 8th edition of India-Bangladesh joint military exercise, ‘Exercise Sampriti 2019’ will be conducted at...

27 Feb 2019 News Analysis
Aviation Conclave 2019

The Ministry of Civil Aviation, in association with Airports Authority of India (AAI), Airport Authority of India - Cargo Logistics & Allied...

27 Feb 2019 News Analysis
Trade and Development Report 2018 (Power, Platforms and The Free Trade Delusion)

Content CHAPTER 1. Current Trends And Challenges In The Global Economy CHAPTER 2. The Shifting Contours of Trade Under...

27 Feb 2019 Summary of Important Reports
In Depth - International Court of Justice

ICJ recently concluded the four-day public hearing on Kulbhushan Jadhav case. India has urged the ICJ to annul Jadhav’s death sentence given...

26 Feb 2019 Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha Discussions
UK Asked to Return Chagos Islands to Mauritius

International Court of Justice (ICJ) has asked the United Kingdom to return the Chagos Archipelago back to Mauritius. ...

26 Feb 2019 News Analysis
Important Fact For Prelims (26th February 2019)

Global Digital Health Partnership Summit Union Minister of Health and Family Welfare has inaugurated the ‘4th Global Digital Health...

26 Feb 2019 News Analysis
Migration and Remittances: The Gender Angle

(The editorial is based on the article “Migration and remittances: The gender angle” which appeared in BusinessLine for 26th February...

26 Feb 2019 News Editorials
Lokpal and Lokayukta

What are Lokpal and Lokayukta? The Lokpal and Lokayukta Act, 2013 provided for the establishment of Lokpal for the Union and Lokayukta for...

26 Feb 2019 National Institutions
Cross-Border Terrorism

25 Feb 2019 Paper 3
Important Fact For Prelims (25th February 2019)

Chabahar Port Afghanistan, for the first time, has begun exports to India through Iran’s Chabahar port. The delivery of the cargos...

25 Feb 2019 News Analysis
Wake up to Children’s Exposure to Pesticides

(The editorial is based on the article “Wake up to Children’s Exposure to Pesticides” which appeared in The Hindu for 25th...

25 Feb 2019 News Editorials
Cross-Border Terrorism

Why in News? On 14 February 2019, suicide bombing attack on a CRPF convoy in the Pulwama district of Jammu and Kashmir has killed 40 security...

25 Feb 2019 Paper 3
Without Land or Recourse

(The editorial is based on the article “Without Land or Recourse” which appeared in Indian Express on 21st February 2019. In this...

23 Feb 2019 News Editorials
The Big Picture - Productivity and Sustainability

National Productivity Council (NPC) celebrated ‘National Productivity Week’ from February 12th to 18th, 2019. The theme for 2019:...

23 Feb 2019 Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha Discussions
RBI to Merge Three Categories of NBFCs

The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has decided to merge three categories of Non Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) into a single category to provide...

23 Feb 2019 News Analysis

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			'title' => 'India Bombs Jaish-e-Muhammad Camp in Pakistan',
			'catname' => 'News Analysis',
			'desc' => '<p>Twelve days after the Pulwama attack, in an aerial surgical strike, the Indian Air Force (IAF) has bombed the Jaish-e-Mohammad&rsquo;s (JeM) terror-training camp in Balakot in the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The operation was carried out by 12 Mirage-2000 fighter jets, after intelligence inputs that the said JeM facility is crowded with 200-325 terrorists.</li>
</ul>
<h3>India&rsquo;s Statement</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India has said that the <strong>strike was based on hard intelligence inputs</strong> about the presence of terrorists in the camp.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>By calling it an intelligence-led operation, the government was trying to send a message to the global audience that the airstrikes were not done at some arbitrarily chosen place but were part of a well-considered action.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>India said that strike was <strong>&ldquo;non-military preemptive action&rdquo;</strong> was important for two reasons:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>By calling it non-military, India wanted to reassure everyone that <strong>it is not an act against the Pakistani military.</strong></li>
<li>The words &ldquo;preemptive action&rdquo; were to suggest that the <strong>airstrike was not an act of revenge or retribution but an act of self-defense</strong> to prevent a likely terror attack in the future.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>International Response</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India has received <strong>support for its air strike from several countries like Australia and France.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The countries <strong>recognized India&rsquo;s right to self-defense,</strong> and asked Pakistan to put an end to operations of terrorist groups established on its territory<g class="gr_ gr_105 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Punctuation multiReplace" id="105" data-gr-id="105">,.</g></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The US said that India and Pakistan <strong>should exercise restraint,</strong> and avoid escalation at any cost and avoid further military activity.</li>
<li>The British government called on India and Pakistan to <strong>pursue diplomatic solutions.</strong></li>
<li>China has said that the two countries <strong>should keep restraint</strong> and do more to improve bilateral relations.</li>
<li>With the exception of the<strong> Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</strong>, there has been no global criticism of India&rsquo;s statement on the strikes.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Analysis</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Indian Air Force&rsquo;s strike on a Jaish-e-Mohammad terror training camp in Pakistan&rsquo;s Balakot <strong>delivers a robust but calibrated message that India can strike deep inside Pakistan for its self-defense.</strong></li>
<li>Airstrikes by the Indian Air Force <strong>establishes a new threshold between the two nuclear neighbors</strong> for an Indian response to a terror attack.</li>
<li>This was the <strong>first time Indian fighter jets have crossed Line of Control, since 1971.</strong> Even during the Kargil war in 1999, Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee had drawn a red line over the IAF crossing the LoC, to avoid international recrimination.</li>
<li>Along with these surgical strikes, India is also working diplomatically to isolate Pakistan.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/unsc-condemns-pulwama-attack" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UN Security Council has condemned the Pulwama Attack.</a></li>
<li><a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/important-facts-for-prelims-4th-january-2019" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pakistan has been listed in the Financial Action Task Forces (FATF) greylist.</a></li>
<li><a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/india-revokes-mfn-status-to-pakistan" target="_blank" rel="noopener">India has also withdrawn Most Favoured Nation Status of Pakistan.</a></li>
<li>India has also taken Pakistan to International Court of Justice against death sentence given to Indian citizen Kulbhushan Jadhav.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>What is a Surgical Strike</strong>?</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A surgical strike is a<strong> swift and targeted attack on a specific target</strong> that aims to neutralize them while ensuring minimum collateral damage to the surrounding areas and civilians.</li>
<li>India has conducted surgical strikes in <strong>2015 in Myanmar against the insurgent groups</strong> and in<strong> 2016 in Pakistan-Occupied-Kashmir against terror launch pads</strong> along the line of control.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>How is it carried out?</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>These attacks can be carried out via air raids, airdropping special operations teams or a ground operation.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>The significance of Surgical Strike</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Neutralization of targets with surgical strikes also prevents escalation to a full-blown war.</li>
<li>Surgical strikes are part of<strong> India&rsquo;s Cold Start doctrine</strong> and have proved effective in foiling infiltration bid by terrorist groups across the LoC.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Cold Start Doctrine</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>The &lsquo;Cold Start&rsquo; doctrine of the Indian Armed Forces envisages swift deployment of troops on the western border within days if a situation of a full-blown war arises.</strong></li>
<li>This doctrine aims to allow Indian forces to conduct sustained attacks while preventing a nuclear retaliation from Pakistan. The operation would be carried out by a unified battle group involving various branches of India&rsquo;s military.</li>
<li><strong>The Cold Start doctrine sought to prepare the army in such a manner that offensive operations could be undertaken within 48 hours of the orders being issued, enabling the Indian troops to take their Pakistani counterparts by surprise.</strong></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Way Forward</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Pakistan has denied that the Indian strike caused any damage on the ground.</strong> This may obviate the need for retaliatory strikes, or if Pakistan responds this could escalate the situation with a military response.</li>
<li>Pakistan could also make a break from its past, and begin to shut down the terror camps on its soil, which would win friends internationally and ensure peace in the region.</li>
<li>Surgical strikes are not a one-stop solution, uprooting terrorism will require sustained efforts on by India diplomatically at the global level, which also includes the adoption of <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/at-unga-india-call-for-early-adoption-of-ccit" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism (CCIT).</strong></a></li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Systems Used</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Mirage-2000</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Dassault Mirage 2000 is a French multirole, single-engine fourth-generation jet fighter manufactured by Dassault Aviation. It was designed in the late 1970s.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>SPICE 2000</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>SPICE stands for &lsquo;Smart, Precise Impact and Cost-Effective&rsquo; a kit which converts a conventional bomb into a smart munition and is manufactured by Rafael of Israel. The &lsquo;2000&rsquo; refers to a bomb of 2,000 pounds (about 1,000 kg).</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Crystal Maze Mk2</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Crystal Maze Mk2 also called AGM 142 Popeye is a precision-guided munition (PGM).</li>
<li>The PGM enable the aircraft to release them from stand-off distances while staying away from harm&rsquo;s way and the munitions glide to the target once launched.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>NETRA AEW&amp;C</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The IAF also deployed the Israeli Phalcon and indigenous Netra early warning aircraft to monitor the mission &mdash; to direct the aircraft</li>
<li>IAF also used a Heron long-range Unmanned Aerial Vehicle that was used for monitoring and assessment.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>',
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		],
		(int) 1 => [
			'title' => 'Global Leaders Adopt ‘Delhi Declaration’ on Digital Health',
			'catname' => 'News Analysis',
			'desc' => '<p>Recently, as part of the high-level summit, the ministers and delegation adopted the Delhi Declaration on digital health for sustainable development.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It was adopted at the concluding session of the &lsquo;<a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/important-fact-for-prelims-26th-february-2019" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>4th Global Digital Health Partnership Summit</strong></a>&rsquo;.</li>
<li>The declaration calls for World Health Organization&rsquo;s (WHO&rsquo;s) leadership in digital health and for it to establish a specific mechanism to centrally coordinate digital health to assist its Member States.</li>
<li>An example of application of Digital Health for sustainable development is <strong>telemedicine, remote care and mobile health delivering care in people's homes, instead of in hospitals and clinics.</strong></li>
<li>The global intergovernmental meeting on digital health was hosted by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare in collaboration with World Health Organization (WHO) and the Global Digital Health Partnership (GDHP).</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>World Health Organisation</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The World Health Organisation (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health.</li>
<li>It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland and the WHO&rsquo;s constitution came into force on April 7, 1948&mdash;a date now celebrated every year as <strong>World Health Day.</strong></li>
<li>The World Health Assembly is the supreme decision-making body in WHO. The assembly meets annually and is attended by delegations from 194 member states.</li>
</ul>
</div>',
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		],
		(int) 2 => [
			'title' => 'Looming Threat to Food Security',
			'catname' => 'News Analysis',
			'desc' => '<p>A recent report titled &ldquo;State of the World&rsquo;s Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture&rdquo; has warned of a growing threat to global food security as a result of severe loss of biodiversity &mdash; that is, plants, animals and microorganisms that contribute to food production.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It is released by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Findings</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India was placed among the countries with a very high threat to soil biodiversity on an index that was created by combining eight stressors of soil biodiversity, which include loss of above-ground diversity, overgrazing, among others.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Soil biota is critical for release of nutrients to the crops as well as organic matter formation. With climate change soil biota will be impacted even more and there will be further loss of nutrients causing collapse of agriculture in some places.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The global map shows almost all of India falls in the highly stressed zone along with some parts of Africa, Americas and Asia.</li>
<li>The report also highlights the loss of biological control agents (BCAs) &mdash; insects and pests &mdash; as an important factor in declining biodiversity.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India has noted a decline of parasitoid wasps and parasitoid flies, which play an important role in biological pest control.</li>
<li>Bangladesh has reported a decline in spiders and predatory insects in fields.</li>
<li>Nepal has mentioned a general decline in the diversity of the natural enemies of pests.</li>
<li>The United States has reported a decline of almost 40% in its grassland bird index between 1968 and 2014.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>On climate change, it notes that extreme weather events are causing major disruptions to species distribution and yields.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>For example, rising temperatures in the tropics are pushing coffee growing towards higher elevations in mountainous areas.</li>
<li>Frequent cold or windy days in spring can also disrupt pollination process.</li>
<li>Egypt has reported that rising temperatures will lead to northwards shifts in the range of fish species, with impacts on fishery production.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Background</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Biodiversity in agriculture is crucial to adapting to climate change.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>E.g.: Livestock diversity is a buffer against crop failure. In India, Small land holders and landless rural dwellers manage 75% of livestock resources and obtain nearly half of their income from them.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Risk can be reduced, for example, by raising species, breeds or varieties that are well adapted to coping with shocks such as droughts or disease outbreaks or by raising a number of different types of crops, livestock or aquatic organisms so as to increase the likelihood that at least some will survive such events.</li>
<li>Before the Green Revolution [of the 1960s], India was growing a large biodiversity of crops on a landscape level. There were different cropping and tree systems at a farm level. Even if there was a failure, all crops would not be affected at the same time.</li>
<li>However, specialisation of crops for high yields has made farmers vulnerable. Crop failures are common when there is natural disaster or pest attack.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Food and Agriculture Organization is an agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger.</li>
<li>FAO is also a source of knowledge and information, and helps developing countries and countries in transition modernize and improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices, ensuring good nutrition and food security for all.</li>
<li>Formation: 16 October 1945, in Quebec City, Canada</li>
<li>Headquarters: Rome, Italy</li>
<li>Every year, World Food Day (Theme for 2018- Zero Hunger) is celebrated on October 16 to commemorate the founding of the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of United Nations in the year 1945.</li>
<li>The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG-2) also aims to &ldquo;End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture&rdquo; by 2030.</li>
</ul>
</div>',
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		],
		(int) 3 => [
			'title' => 'Angkor City in Cambodia',
			'catname' => 'News Analysis',
			'desc' => '<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A study has suggested that the <strong>Angkor, the ancient capital of the Khmer empire</strong>, appears to have suffered a gradual decline rather than a catastrophic collapse.</li>
<li>Previously many archaeologists and historians have said that the <strong>abandonment of Angkor in 15th-century, was due to 1431 invasion by the Thai Kingdom from Ayutthaya.</strong></li>
<li>The city of Angkor is also home to <strong>UNESCO World Heritage Site, Angkor Vat.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Angkor Archeological Park</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Angkor is one of the most important archaeological sites in South-East Asia.</li>
<li>Stretching over some 400 km<sup>2</sup>, including forested area, <strong>Angkor Archaeological Park contains the magnificent remains of the different capitals of the Khmer Empire, from the 9th to the 15th century.</strong></li>
<li>They include the famous <strong>Temple of Angkor Wat and, at Angkor Thom, the Bayon Temple with its countless sculptural decorations.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</ul>
<p style="text-align: center;"><iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/MSpPUFdYpJI" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe></p>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Angkor Vat Temple</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Angkor Wat is a temple complex in Cambodia</strong> and one of the <strong>largest religious monuments in the world.</strong></li>
<li>It was <strong>originally constructed as a Hindu temple</strong> dedicated to the god Vishnu for the Khmer Empire, it was <strong>gradually transformed into a Buddhist temple</strong> towards the end of the 12th century.</li>
<li>It was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yaśodharapura (present-day Angkor), the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum.</li>
</ul>
</div>',
			'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
			'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/angkor-city-in-cambodia'
		],
		(int) 4 => [
			'title' => 'Indian Diaspora',
			'catname' => 'Paper 2',
			'desc' => '<h3>Why in News?</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Recently India celebrated its 15<sup>th</sup> Pravasi Bhartiya Diwas from 21<sup>st</sup> January to 23<sup>rd</sup> January.</li>
<li>India every year celebrates its Pravasi Bhartiya Diwas on 9th January to commemorate return of its most iconic Pravasi M.K. Gandhi from Africa on 9<sup>th</sup> Jan 1915.</li>
<li>India would be celebrating Mahatma Gandhi&rsquo;s 150<sup>th</sup> birth anniversary in the year 2019.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Indian Diaspora</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Diaspora encompasses a group of people who can either trace their origins to India or who are Indian citizens living abroad, either temporarily or permanently.</li>
<li>It includes Non-Resident Indians (NRIs), Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs) and Overseas Citizens of India (OCI).</li>
<li>PIO and OCI card holders were merged under OCI category in 2015.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Overseas Citizen of India</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A person with OCI status is not an Indian citizen. The person does not have voting rights in India, nor can contest elections or hold any constitutional office.</li>
<li>An Overseas Citizen of India is however entitled to some benefits such as a multiple-entry, multi-purpose life-long visa to visit India.</li>
<li>They are exempted from police reporting for any length of stay in the country.</li>
<li>They are also granted all rights in parity with NRIs except, the right to acquisition of agricultural or plantation properties.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Non-Resident Indian</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>An Indian citizen who is ordinarily residing outside India and holds an Indian Passport.</li>
<li>A person is considered NRI if She is not in India for 182 days or more during the financial year Or;</li>
<li>If he/she is in India for less than 365 days during the 4 years preceding that year and less than 60 days in that year.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Indian example of large scale migration began during the British rule as indentured labourers to former colonies like Fiji, Kenya and Malaysia (also known as <strong>Girmitiya people</strong>).</li>
<li>Today the Indian diaspora numbers over 20 million, reflecting the full multiplicity, variety of the rich social, ethnic and cultural tapestry of the land of its origin.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Importance of Overseas Indian</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>One of the greatest benefits of engaging with the 30-million-strong Indian diaspora has been in terms of remittances.</li>
<li>Remittances close to 69 billion dollar make an invaluable contribution by aiding in socio-economic development, poverty reduction and changes in consumption behaviour in rural areas.</li>
<li>NRIs are more prone to donating to domestic charities because of the <strong>strong cultural and emotional feelings</strong> that they nurse.</li>
<li>Diaspora acts as <strong>'agents of change'</strong> facilitating and enhancing investment, accelerating industrial development, and boosting international trade and tourism.</li>
<li>Another tangible long-term advantage in nurturing ties with an active Diaspora is an accelerated technological sector.</li>
<li>A less tangible but important advantage in having a large emigrant group is <strong>&ldquo;diaspora diplomacy&rdquo;</strong> and they act as <strong>&ldquo;bridge-builders&rdquo;</strong> between their home and adopted countries.</li>
<li>Indo-US Civil Nuclear Deal is a case in point, as ethnic Indians in United States successfully lobbied for clinching of the N-deal.</li>
<li>The migration of less-skilled labour (especially to West Asia) has also helped in bringing down disguised unemployment in India.</li>
<li>Migration of skilled labours to foreign countries and their eventual success bolstered the nation&rsquo;s image.</li>
<li>Diaspora&rsquo;s motives to invest in India are in contrast to non-diaspora FDI. Their investments are long lasting as many of them wish to establish a long-term base in India.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Government Initiative</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Government&rsquo;s initiatives towards the diaspora are two-pronged. Firstly non-residents are provided with consular services, protection and outreach activities.</li>
<li>At the same time, policies are created to encourage the diaspora to contribute in India&rsquo;s growth through philanthropy, knowledge transfers, and investments in development projects.</li>
<li>There is a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) and the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE) for implementation of the <strong>Pravasi Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PKVY)</strong>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Pravasi Kaushal Vikas Yojana</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The objective of the Scheme is to institutionalize the process of skill development of emigrant Indian workers.</li>
<li>Provide them basic knowledge about laws, language and culture of the destination countries for the purpose of overseas employment.</li>
<li>The Scheme also aims at capacity building in the country in the area of development of standards, learning material, assessment standards, testing and certification on par with global standards.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Indian Government has also launched <strong>Scholarship Programme for Diaspora Children (SPDC)</strong> under which 100 scholarships per annum are granted to Persons of Indian Origin (PIO) and Non Resident Indians (NRI) students for undergraduate courses.</li>
<li><strong>Know India Program&rsquo; (KIP)</strong> is a flagship initiative for Diaspora engagement which familiarizes Indian-origin youth (18-30 years) with their Indian roots and contemporary India.</li>
<li>Under <strong>Minimum Referral Wages</strong> <strong>(MRW),</strong> applicable to <strong>Emigration Check Required (ECR)</strong> <strong>countries,</strong> India has increased the minimum wages of Indian workers employed as industrial workers, domestic servants, cleaners and labourers.</li>
<li><strong>E-migrate system</strong> requires all foreign employers to register in the database. It ensures the welfare and check on exploitation met to emigrants.</li>
<li>Indian government has also started <strong>Madad Portal</strong> to take timely and speedy action on grievances addressed by people living abroad.</li>
<li>In words of our prime minister, Indian diaspora are our 'Rashtradoots'. He addressed Indian diaspora in different parts of the world from Madison Square, New York to Kigali, Rawanda.</li>
<li>The Government of India has given several incentives to NRIs for investing their funds in India. They are exempt from several taxes and other charges. NRI seats are reserved in all the medical, engineering and other professional colleges.</li>
<li>The Representation of the People (Amendment) Bill 2017 the provision would help non-resident Indians (NRIs) to participate in the electoral process. It extends the facility of 'proxy voting' to overseas Indians, on the lines of service voters.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Challenges</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Outside India</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Rising incidence of hate speech and crimes</strong> against Indian Diaspora by the locals due to racism, communalism emboldened by coming of nationalist and ultra nationalist governments to power in many countries.</li>
<li><strong>Increasing anti globalization:</strong> Fear of losing jobs and educational opportunities to outsiders has resulted in stricter visa rules in many countries including USA, Australia etc.</li>
<li>Sectarian crisis, increasing terrorist activities and war in the Middle East countries (Yemen, Oman, Libya, Syria etc) leave our diaspora vulnerable to attacks.</li>
<li><strong>Adverse local laws</strong> to encourage more employment from locals such as <strong>Nitaqat Law of Saudi Arabia</strong> (mandates one local to be hired in place of 10 migrants) has adversely affected prospects of the Indian working class in Saudi Arabia.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>In India</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Out Migration results in substantial drop in the supply of professionals for running institutions and organisations in India.</li>
<li>Remittances are not always used for beneficial purposes. For instance, India faced problems due to foreign funding for extremist movements like the Khalistan movement.</li>
<li>The NRIs are not allowed to set up their firms directly in India due to which India is not able to take the advantage of their entrepreneurial skills.</li>
<li><strong>E-Migrate system and the Minimum Referral Wages</strong> policy have been detrimental to India as companies now find it easier to hire labour from countries like Bangladesh and Pakistan.</li>
<li>Poor schemes coupled with ineffectual implementation hinder the Diasporas&rsquo; contribution towards the growth of India.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Way Forward</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India should formalise a rotation program wherein top NRI scientists, engineers, doctors, managers and professionals serve Indian public sector organizations for a brief period, lending their expertise, similar to VAJRA Scheme.</li>
<li>India should aggressively court NRIs to invest in India &mdash; especially for projects which focus on rural development &mdash; by offering attractive interest rates on deposits.</li>
<li>India can open a separate Minister-of-State level department for NRI administration - similar to the Veterans&rsquo; Administration in the US.</li>
<li>Social media tools have made it easy and inexpensive for Indian Diaspora to stay in touch with family and friends back home, and their link to India has never been stronger. It is time that the Indian government leveraged this strong bond for the greater good of the nation.</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/823Drishti_ias_Indian-diaspora.png" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/823Drishti_ias_Indian-diaspora.png" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></a></p>',
			'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
			'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/to-the-points/Paper2/indian-diaspora'
		],
		(int) 5 => [
			'title' => 'Important Fact For Prelims (27th February 2019)',
			'catname' => 'News Analysis',
			'desc' => '<h3>Exercise Sampriti 2019</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The <strong>8<sup>th</sup> edition of India-Bangladesh</strong> joint military exercise, <strong>&lsquo;Exercise Sampriti 2019&rsquo;</strong> will be conducted at Tangail, Bangladesh from March 2<sup>nd</sup> to 15<sup>th</sup>.</li>
<li>The exercise will involve tactical level operations in a <g class="gr_ gr_96 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling ins-del" id="96" data-gr-id="96">counter insurgency</g> and counter terrorism environment under the mandate of the United Nations.</li>
<li>The Exercise Sampriti is hosted alternately by both the countries. The <strong>7<sup>th</sup> edition was held in India at Mizoram.</strong></li>
<li>The exercise aims to build, strengthen and promote positive relations between the Armies of India and Bangladesh.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Space Flight of First UAE Astronaut</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The<strong> first astronaut from the United Arab Emirates (UAE)</strong> will head to the<strong> International Space Station (ISS)</strong> via the Russian Soyuz rocket on 25th <g class="gr_ gr_128 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Punctuation only-del replaceWithoutSep" id="128" data-gr-id="128">September,</g> 2019.</li>
<li>After this UAE will join the list of <strong>eighteen countries that have sent their people to ISS.</strong></li>
<li>The pioneering mission to the ISS is part of the UAE Astronaut Programme that aims to <g class="gr_ gr_106 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling multiReplace" id="106" data-gr-id="106">fulfil</g> the UAE&rsquo;s aspirations in taking part in scientific missions and manned space exploration missions.</li>
<li>In 2018, UAE launched its<strong> first locally made satellite KhalifaSat from Japan.</strong> It has planned a Mars probe named as Hope Mars Mission, for the next year.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>International Space Station (ISS)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>ISS is a <strong>habitable artificial satellite - the single largest man-made structure in low earth orbit.</strong></li>
<li>It circles the Earth in roughly 92 minutes and completes 15.5 orbits per day.</li>
<li>The ISS programme is a joint project between <strong>five participating space agencies: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and CSA (Canada)</strong> but its ownership and use <g class="gr_ gr_108 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Grammar multiReplace" id="108" data-gr-id="108">has</g> been established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements.</li>
<li>Its first component was launched into orbit in 1998 and its development and assembly <g class="gr_ gr_114 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Grammar multiReplace" id="114" data-gr-id="114">continues</g>, with components scheduled for launch this year.</li>
<li>It serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and other fields.</li>
<li>Continuous presence at ISS has resulted <g class="gr_ gr_120 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Grammar multiReplace" id="120" data-gr-id="120">into</g> the longest continuous human presence in the low earth orbit.</li>
<li>It is expected to <strong>operate until 2030.</strong></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Gynandromorphs</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>According to Scientists, the <strong>study of gynandromorphs</strong> could offer clues as to why some human diseases strike one gender more than the other.</li>
<li>Gynander or gynandromorphs are the organisms in which the<strong> body consists of both male and female parts.</strong></li>
<li>The term is derived from the <strong>Greek words (gyne = woman; </strong><g class="gr_ gr_98 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling" id="98" data-gr-id="98">aner</g><strong> = man and morphe = form).</strong> Thus, in these <g class="gr_ gr_133 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Punctuation only-ins replaceWithoutSep" id="133" data-gr-id="133">animals</g> one part of the body shows female and the other part male features. The phenomenon has been <strong>documented in birds, crustaceans </strong><g class="gr_ gr_134 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Punctuation only-ins replaceWithoutSep" id="134" data-gr-id="134">and</g><strong> butterflies.</strong></li>
<li>However, it still remains a mystery as to how gynandromorphs are born. <strong>Gynandromorphs occur naturally, usually resulting from a random genetic error.</strong></li>
<li>These instances of split-sex animals and insects could offer clues to why some human diseases strike one sex more than the other.</li>
<li>Diseases like multiple sclerosis, obesity, metabolic syndrome, autoimmune disease, Alzheimer&rsquo;s, even <g class="gr_ gr_130 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling multiReplace" id="130" data-gr-id="130">ageing</g> <strong>differs by sex.</strong> <g class="gr_ gr_129 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Grammar only-ins replaceWithoutSep" id="129" data-gr-id="129">Few</g> decades back, scientists did not think that sex chromosomes played any role in causing sex differences in these diseases.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Climate-Smart Varieties of Rice</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Recently, the <strong>National Rice Research Institute (NRRI)</strong>, has released <strong>four new rice varieties</strong>, including two high-protein and two climate-smart varieties.</li>
<li>The four new varieties <g class="gr_ gr_132 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Grammar multiReplace" id="132" data-gr-id="132">comprises</g> of:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Two high-protein rice varieties (CR Dhan 310 and CR Dhan 311)</strong> and</li>
<li><strong>Two climate-smart varieties (CR Dhan 801 and CR Dhan 802)</strong>, which are tolerant to both submergence and drought and few biotic stresses to face the challenges of climate change.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>NRRI also developed a <strong>Mobile App &lsquo;riceXpert&rsquo; to provide information</strong> to farmers in real time besides facilitating the flow of information from scientist to farmers.</li>
<li>NRRI is the <strong>nodal agency</strong> for planning, implementation <g class="gr_ gr_104 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Punctuation only-ins replaceWithoutSep" id="104" data-gr-id="104">and</g> monitoring of the <strong>Bringing Green Revolution in Eastern India programme.</strong></li>
<li>It was <strong>established in 1946</strong> and <g class="gr_ gr_100 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Punctuation only-ins replaceWithoutSep" id="100" data-gr-id="100">subsequently</g> the administrative control of the Institute was transferred to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in 1966.</li>
<li>NRRI is one of the<strong> institutes of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR</strong>) and is located at <strong>Cuttack in the state of Odisha</strong>.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air Missile</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><g class="gr_ gr_131 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling multiReplace" id="131" data-gr-id="131">Defence</g> Research and Development Organisation test fired <strong>indigenously</strong> developed <strong>Quick Reach Surface-to-Air missiles</strong> (QRSAM) from Integrated Test Range Chandipur, in Odisha.</li>
<li>The test flights successfully demonstrated the robust Control, Aerodynamics, Propulsion, Structural performance <g class="gr_ gr_111 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Punctuation only-ins replaceWithoutSep" id="111" data-gr-id="111">and</g> high <g class="gr_ gr_112 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling multiReplace" id="112" data-gr-id="112">manoeuvring</g> capabilities thus proving the design configuration.</li>
<li>It is a state-of-the-art missile with <g class="gr_ gr_95 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling ins-del multiReplace" id="95" data-gr-id="95">all weather</g> weapon system, a strike range of 30 km and capable of engaging multiple targets.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Bagru Block Printing<img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1577427947_image23.jpg" width="200" caption="false" style="float: right;" /></h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Union Council Minister Smriti Irani</strong> inaugurated the <strong>'Titanwala Museum'</strong> in Bagru village of Rajasthan that showcases the <strong>Chippa community's (literally meaning people who stamp or print)</strong> Hand-block printing.</li>
<li>Bagru printing is one of the traditional techniques of printing with <strong>natural <g class="gr_ gr_94 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling multiReplace" id="94" data-gr-id="94">colour</g></strong> followed by the <g class="gr_ gr_103 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling" id="103" data-gr-id="103">chippas</g> of a remote place of Rajasthan.</li>
<li>Bagru printers use a technique called <g class="gr_ gr_97 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling" id="97" data-gr-id="97">dabu</g> in which a mixture of black clay, acacia gum, spoiled wheat flour, limestone is printed onto the fabric. The fabric can then be dyed and left in the sun to dry.</li>
</ul>',
			'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
			'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/important-fact-for-prelims-27-february-2019'
		],
		(int) 6 => [
			'title' => 'Aviation Conclave 2019',
			'catname' => 'News Analysis',
			'desc' => '<p>The Ministry of Civil Aviation, in association with Airports Authority of India (AAI), Airport Authority of India - Cargo Logistics &amp; Allied Services Company Limited (AAICLAS) and Confederation of Indian Industry, is organizing the Aviation Conclave 2019.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The theme of the conclave is &ldquo;Flying for All&rdquo;.</li>
<li>Aviation Conclave brings into focus new aviation business to India, in particular, drones systems, manufacturing of aircraft in India, financing and leasing of aircraft from India by Indian and foreign airlines, transforming Indian airports into next-gen aviation hubs, and unleashing the air cargo potential by integrating every village of India in global value chains.</li>
</ul>
<h3>The 5 Key Areas of Deliberation</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/digital-sky-platform-drone-regulation-1-0&amp;sa=D&amp;ust=1551255259362000&amp;usg=AFQjCNHlwfjtgz7w6Tjp_ynVINCTmztONQ" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Drone-Ecosystem Policy Roadmap</a>,</li>
<li><strong>Roadmap for Manufacturing Aircraft and associated equipment</strong>, including Regional Transport Aircraft, in India,</li>
<li>The <strong>Project Rupee Raftaar</strong>- which aims at Aircraft Financing and Leasing from India,</li>
<li><strong>National Air Cargo Policy:</strong> it seeks to make India among the top five air freight markets by 2025, besides creating air transport shipment hubs at all major airports over the next six years.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The policy will encourage code sharing/interline agreements between foreign and Indian carriers.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Mission to transform Indian Airports</strong> into Next-Gen Aviation Hubs</li>
</ul>
<h3>India&rsquo;s Aviation Industry</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Indian civil aviation industry is undergoing an expansion, driven by factors such as<strong> low-cost carriers (LCCs), modern airports, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in domestic airlines, advanced information technology (IT)</strong> interventions and a strong <strong>focus on regional connectivity.</strong></li>
<li>Growth in aviation is also <strong>increasing demand for MRO</strong> (maintenance, repair, and overhaul) facilities.</li>
<li>Greater focus is given on <strong>infrastructure development</strong> &ndash; increasing liberalization - Open Sky Policy; AAI driving modernization of airports and Air &amp; Navigation Systems.</li>
<li><strong>Enhanced Skill Development</strong> in the sector can leverage India's human capital potential and can create job opportunities.</li>
<li><strong>Innovation and Technology</strong> &ndash; GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN): India's first satellite-based navigation system has been launched along with NO Objection Certificate Application System (NOCAS) which streamlines online process of timely NOC for height clearances of buildings around airports and E-Governance for Civil Aviation (<g class="gr_ gr_36 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling ins-del multiReplace" id="36" data-gr-id="36">eGCA</g>) which regulates online delivery of licensing and regulatory processes of Directorate General of Civil Aviation.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Government&rsquo;s Policy</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Regional connectivity scheme of UDAN (Ude Desh ka Aam Nagrik)</strong> initiated by the government in 2016 aims to make flying affordable by connecting unserved airports across the country.</li>
<li><strong>NABH Nirman,</strong> announced in the 2018-19 budget, aims to expand airport capacity by more than five times to handle a billion trips in a year.</li>
<li><strong>National Civil Aviation Policy (NCAP)</strong> was framed to boost regional air connectivity, establish an integrated ecosystem to promote tourism and generate employment.</li>
</ul>',
			'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
			'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/aviation-conclave-2019-infrastructure-sector-nabh-nirman-udan-policy-civil'
		],
		(int) 7 => [
			'title' => 'Trade and Development Report 2018 <br>(Power, Platforms and The Free Trade Delusion)</br>',
			'catname' => 'Summary of Important Reports',
			'desc' => '<p><em><strong>Content</strong></em></p>
<ul>
<li><a href="#1">CHAPTER 1. Current Trends And Challenges In The Global Economy</a></li>
<li><a href="#2">CHAPTER 2. The Shifting Contours of Trade Under Hyperglobalization</a></li>
<li><a href="#3">CHAPTER 3. Economic Development In A Digital World: Prospects, Pitfalls And Policy Options</a></li>
<li><a href="#4">CHAPTER 4. Bridging Gaps or Widening Divides: Infrastructure Development And Structural Transformation</a></li>
</ul>
<h1 id="1" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 24px;"><br />Chapter 1: Current Trends And Challenges In The Global Economy</span></h1>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Seven Important Characteristics of the Most Recent Wave of Globalisation<br /><br /></strong>This section describes seven major features of the current era of hyperglobalization and of today&rsquo;s trading system:</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Hyperglobalization (the rapid rise in trade integration)</li>
<li>The dematerialization of globalization (the importance of services)</li>
<li>Democratic globalization (the widespread embrace of openness)</li>
<li>Criss-crossing globalization (the similarity of North-to-South trade and investment flows with flows in the other direction)</li>
<li>The rise of a mega-trader (China), the first since Imperial Britain</li>
<li>The proliferation of regional trade agreements and the imminence of mega-regional ones</li>
<li>The decline of barriers to trade in goods but the continued existence of high barriers to trade in services.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2>Making Sense of Global Economic Trends</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Recent growth estimates have been more mixed than forecast and show growing unpredictability. For example, euro zone growth in the first quarter of 2018 is estimated to have decelerated to 0.4 per cent relative to the previous quarter, the slowest rate since the third quarter of 2016 (Euro stat, May 2018).</li>
<li>In the United States, annualized GDP growth for the first quarter has been revised down 2.2 per cent, lower than the previous three quarters, while second quarter growth rebounded spectacularly to 4.1 per cent, thanks to increased household spending and a sharp rise in export earnings.</li>
<li>In G20 countries as a group, year-on-year growth in the first quarter of 2018 at 3.9 per cent was still much lower than the 5.4 per cent rates recorded in the middle of 2010, during the short-term recovery just after the crisis.</li>
<li>All this suggests that the recovery observed since 2017 remains uneven and its trajectory uncertain.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Emerging Policy Challenges</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>At the global level, excess liquidity has rendered the system vulnerable to crises. As we have seen, vulnerabilities are particularly serious in the emerging markets. The large foreign capital inflows that drove asset-price inflation also led to the accumulation of stocks of foreign financial capital, brought in by investors with short-term interests, who are likely to exit when access to cheap money in developed countries comes to an end.</li>
<li>But policymakers face other factors that are potent sources of instability. These are:</li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li>The oil price hike</li>
<li>United States protectionism and potential trade wars</li>
</ol>
<h2>Global Trade Patterns</h2>
<h3>Signals from global trade</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>World merchandise trade has picked up recently butstill remains below recent highs.World merchandise exports amounted to $17 trillion in 2017, higher than the $16 trillion recorded in the previous year, but below the $19 trillion level recorded in 2013 and 2014, though this partly reflects the decline of commodity prices from the pre-2014 highs.</li>
<li>Trade measured in volume terms is also showing signs of losing momentum.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Commercial services trade</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>World services exports, which fell in 2015 and were sluggish in 2016, registered significant revival in 2017, from a little less than $5 trillion to $5.3 trillion.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Commodity price trends</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A return of buoyancy to commodity markets is likely to benefit some developing country commodity exporters. The prices of a broad range of commodities are set to rise over 2018, continuing (with some exceptions) the trend observed since January 2016, which is when the decline in commodity prices from 2011 was reversed.</li>
</ul>
<h2>The Drivers of Growth<a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/153drishti_ias_image-1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/153drishti_ias_image-1.jpg" width="422" height="860" style="float: right;" /></a></h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The strategy of reviving growth through quantitative easing in the advanced economies has had only limited success in spurring income and employment growth. The persistent weakness of effective demand, compounded by post-crisis deleveraging by households and firms, dampened productive investment, while higher income inequality and lower employment rates prevented a strong rebound of consumption.</li>
<li>In the two decades prior to the global crisis, in a context of financial liberalization and tight fiscal policies, two means of stimulating growth operated to differing degrees in the various regions of the world: <em><strong>debt-fuelled consumption expansion and export expansion</strong></em>. A mapping of global growth shows that these have continued to be the major strategies in the post crisis period.</li>
<li>Countries showing a tendency towards a relative reduction of imports are likely to be those dealing with current account deficits, such as France, India, Turkey, the United Kingdom and some countries in Central America and the Caribbean An obvious alternative way for these countries to reduce their external deficits would be for other trading countries that consistently run surpluses to increase their domestic demand and thus their imports, which would in the process contribute to an addition to global demand for exports. Besides helping other countries, this would also facilitate a recovery of global growth.</li>
<li>A second cause for concern is with respect to economies whose aggregate supply growth is mostly driven by net external demand (includes INDIA), Nearly half of them rely heavily on commodity or oil exports.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Regional Growth Trends</h2>
<h3>Developed countries</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Amid signs of a loss of momentum in the global economy, the United States is a partial exception. Europe and Japan, after showing promise of consistently positive and significant rates of growth, have seen growth rates fall. But the United States appears to be staying on course.</li>
<li>The sharp fall in the unemployment rate in the United States, from close to 10 per cent in the middle of the crisis to 4.0 per cent in June 2018, is seen as evidence of the strength of recovery.</li>
<li>Growth in the United Kingdom is expected to be lower in 2018 compared to 2017, with uncertainty over Brexit negotiations adding to structural weaknesses reflected in weak productivity growth and sluggish business investment.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Transition economies</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The transition economies that are members of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) recorded a strong rebound in 2017, with growth of 2 per cent, as compared with 0.2 per cent in 2016.</li>
<li>An important factor underlying the recovery was an increase in commodity prices, especially of oil, which accounts for close to 60 per cent of merchandise exports from the Russian Federation. The spike in oil prices improved both the current account on the balance of payments and the revenues of the Government in the Russian Federation.</li>
<li>The growth dynamics of the transition economies in South-Eastern Europe is determined by the performance of the European Union, which consumes anywhere between half and 80 per cent of exports from these economies. Uncertainties in Europe can affect the pace of GDP growth in this region.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Latin America</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Having benefited from the recovery from recession in two large economies in the region (Argentina and Brazil), the rise in commodity prices, and a consequent 3 per cent improvement in the terms of trade, Latin American economies recorded higher growth in 2017, especially in relation to the slowdown starting 2015. The recovery is expected to continue with GDP growth in Latin America and the Caribbean projected at around 1.7 per cent in 2018, compared to 1.1 per cent in 2017.</li>
</ul>
<h3>West Asia</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Growth in West Asia in 2017 was at its lowest in the post-crisis period, as low oil prices and voluntary production restraints affected income growth in the oil-producing countries, and political conditions adversely affected economic performance in countries like the Syrian Arab Republic and Yemen. Strikingly, GDP in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia contracted by 3.2 and 0.7 per cent respectively.</li>
<li>This, however, is likely to change in 2018, given the sharp increase in oil prices and the positive effect that would have on budgetary revenues and expenditures. However, such gains may be partly neutralized by the need to keep production low to prevent oil prices from returning to their earlier lows.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Developing Africa</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>After having experienced a rise in the average growth rate from 1.7 to 3.0 per cent between 2016 and 2017, developing countries on the African continent are projected to grow at 3.5 per cent in 2018.Amajor factor in this recovery is the commodity price rise, which is crucial for this set of countries given their dependence on commodity exports. The rise in oil prices particularly benefits countries like Algeria, Angola, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana and Nigeria.</li>
<li>Factors driving growth included, besides increased commodity prices, increased infrastructure investments. However, much of the expenditure driving growth was funded with borrowing from abroad in many cases, resulting in a return of the &ldquo;high indebtedness&rdquo; problem.</li>
<li>Nigeria, the largest economy in Africa, saw a return to moderate growth in 2018, after two years of contraction and stagnation.</li>
<li>A fundamental and well-recognized failure of South Africa is its inability to diversify out of mining into manufacturing.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Developing Asia</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>After recording GDP growth rates of 5.7 and 5.5 per cent in 2016 and 2017, the developing countries in Asia are expected to sustain that rate in 2018 as well. This is partly because while growth in China is expected to decelerate from 6.9 in 2017 to 6.7 per cent in 2018, in India it is expected to rise from 6.2 to 7 per cent.</li>
<li>A lending spree by the banking system during the high growth years has led to the accumulation of large volumes of bad debt or non-performing assets in the balance sheets of leading banks. This, besides threatening financial stability, is curbing credit expansion and is likely to adversely affect investment and growth. Further, the Indian rupee is under pressure on foreign exchange markets. Over the first five months of 2018 the currency had depreciated by more than 7.5 per cent relative to the dollar.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Growth in an environment of instability</h3>
<p>The likely emerging scenario, in the absence of quick proactive macro policy measures by governments, is as follows:</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Net outflows of capital, especially of portfolio capital, from emerging markets, are triggered largely by monetary tightening and increases in interest rates in the United States and other advanced countries.</li>
<li>The consequent depreciation of currencies is then worsened by speculative attacks, even as domestic inflation is triggered by the depreciation.</li>
<li>Debt service payments valued in domestic currency, on substantially increased corporate debt, rise sharply, precipitating default and bankruptcies.</li>
<li>This further depresses investment precisely at a time when it was expected to revive.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Way forward</h3>
<p>In an interdependent global economy, inward-looking policies do not offer a way forward; substantial and coordinated shifts in macroeconomic strategy appear to be the only way out of this trap</p>
<h2>A &ldquo;Trade War&rdquo; Scenario</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In case of Escalation of trade tensions between the United States, and Canada, China, Japan, Mexico, The Republic of Korea and the European Union.</li>
<li>The direct impact of actual tariff increases on the economies involved appears negligible &ndash; for example, recent United States tariffs hit $34 billion of imports from China, or less 0.02 per cent of the GDP of the United States.</li>
<li>However, the indirect consequences of a &ldquo;trade war&rdquo; have raised more serious concerns, with most assessments focusing on supply-side effects such as the possible disruption of global supply chains and the risk that technology flows across countries may become restricted.</li>
<li>Seen through the lens of these projections the most serious effect of a trade war may be to trigger a fall in aggregate demand.</li>
<li>The external imbalance of the United States is expected to worsen, given the larger fiscal deficit and moderate &ldquo;releveraging&rdquo; by the private sector.</li>
<li>China is assumed to continue its shift towards greater reliance on domestic demand.</li>
<li>In the trade war scenario, the tariff escalation triggers downward pressures on wages and generates uncertainty around the path of economic policy. This damages aggregate demand, economic growth and, ultimately, trade activity and financial stability.</li>
</ul>
<p></p>
<h1 id="2" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 24px;">Chapter 2: The Shifting Contours of Trade Under Hyperglobalization</span></h1>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The hyper globalized world is one where money and power have become inseparable and where capital &ndash; whether tangible or intangible, long term or short term, industrial or financial &ndash; has extricated itself from regulatory oversight and restraint and muted the voice and influence of other social stakeholders with an interest in the direction of public policy.</li>
<li>Mainstream economists bear part of the responsibility for the current state of affairs. Ignoring their own analytical nuances and the subtleties of economic history, they remain biased in favour of unqualified free trade when it comes to communicating with policymakers and broader audiences (see e.g. Driskill, 2012; Rodrik, 2017, 2018).</li>
<li>The mainstream narrative pitches &ldquo;comparative advantage&rdquo; as a &ldquo;win-win&rdquo; boost to economic efficiency and social welfare, without specifying the conditions under which such beneficial outcomes can occur or how any negative effects could be abrogated.</li>
<li>There is no doubt that the new protectionist tide, together with the declining spirit of international cooperation, poses significant challenges for governments around the world. However, the call to double down on &ldquo;free trade&rdquo; provides a cover for a regime of footloose capital, concentrated market power and the capture of public policy by powerful economic interests.</li>
<li>Fighting isolationism effectively requires recognizing that many of the rules adopted to promote &ldquo;free trade&rdquo; have not promoted a rules-based system that is inclusive, transparent and development friendly.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Trade Dynamics After the Second World War</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Between the end of the Second World War and the global financial crisis (GFC), the growth of world trade consistently outpaced that of global output.</li>
<li>The rise and fall of the Golden Age: 1950&ndash;1986</li>
<li>Between 1950 and 1973, world trade grew at an average annual rate of nearly 8 per cent, amid strong declines of trade costs of all kinds resulting from peace dividends, improvements in transport, a fast pace of investment and rapid productivity growth, a measured drop in tariffs, and a stable international monetary system.</li>
<li>Most of the increase in trade flows reflected rising intra- and inter-industry trade among developed countries and with a strong regional dimension. Trade rules, consequently, were designed by a small club of relatively wealthy converging economies, to consolidate broad economic gains coming from outside the trading system (Rose, 2004), tolerance of the trade practices of (mainly developing) countries who were not part of the club but with little concern to address their particular challenges.</li>
<li>The asymmetric structure of international trade and lagging growth performance of most developing countries fuelled growing concerns among many of their policymakers over biases in the rules of the trading system. It also underpinned the idea of &ldquo;unequal exchange&rdquo;, which argued that the structure of world trade was responsible for the persistent inequality between developed and developing economies.</li>
<li>Under pressure from a series of internal and external shocks, the 1973&ndash;1986 period was difficult for advanced and developing countries alike, except for oil exporters, who enjoyed significant terms of-trade gains, As a result, the annual growth of trade almost halved in the 1973&ndash;1986 period compared to 1950&ndash;1973.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Hyperglobalization: 1986&ndash;present</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Starting from the mid-1980s, a new phase of trade expansion took place. In contrast with the two previous post-war periods included in figure 2.1 &ndash; the Golden Age and the subsequent turbulent decade &ndash; this new round of globalization was marked by very fast acceleration of trade, especially in some parts of the developing world.</li>
<li>This period coincides with the beginning of the Uruguay Round and came in the wake of several important political shifts. It occurred when many developing countries were still adjusting to the debt crisis by abandoning import-substitution industrialization (ISI) and turning to more export-oriented strategies based on liberalized imports.</li>
<li>It also coincided with the end of the East&ndash;West divide and the rise of a &ldquo;new world order&rdquo; dominated by liberal ideology. On the supply side, the erosion of organized labour and the flexibilization of labour markets, along with the continued spread of technological progress (containerization, information and communication technology (ICT), etc.), facilitated the fragmentation of production along GVCs and the coordination of complex processes across long distances, with the resulting cross-border movement of inputs instrumental in boosting trade. This was supported by the proliferation of free trade agreements (FTAs) and bilateral investment treaties (BITs) and subsequently by the accession of China to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, which lowered the cost of labour by enlarging the globally available reserve army of workers.</li>
<li>The trade acceleration was particularly strong in East and South-East Asia, most of all the with the growth acceleration and structural transformation in China. This then spilled over to the rest of the developing world, mainly in the form of boosted demand for raw materials.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Trade-Charged Structural Change: Diverging Paths Among Developing Regions</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The &ldquo;rise of the South&rdquo; in international trade has been a much-cited feature of hyperglobalization, disrupting the dominant pattern of North&ndash;North trade in the previous era of managed globalization, and establishing a landscape in which North&ndash;South and South&ndash;South trade have assumed greater weight. BRICS6 have become symbolic of this changing landscape but GVCs are seen as its great disruptors.</li>
<li>On the one hand, the first-tier NIEs (newly industrializing economy) and China display clear trends towards technological upgrading, even though questions remain about the extent to which this has benefited workers employed at the assembly stage in manufacturing GVCs . By contrast, Africa and West Asia showed limited progress as their exports remain extremely concentrated in commodities, with hardly any increase in shares of technology-intensive manufactures, regardless of their labour skill levels.</li>
<li>This suggests that the rapid development of China (and more generally East and South-East Asia) has not triggered significant positive structural changes in the export structures of other developing regions; rather, it has intensified their role as providers of commodities. This need not be a negative outcome, if the revenues from such exports are used to finance domestic economic diversification and technological upgrading. But such a push typically requires systematic industrial policies in a context of rising domestic demand. In practice, such examples are not that common. By contrast, intraregional trade seems to have the greatest potential in terms of providing support to move up the ladder, confirming the validity of previous UNCTAD calls for strengthening regional trade (UNCTAD, 2013).</li>
</ul>
<h2>Trade and Inequality Under Hyperglobalization</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Trade under hyperglobalization, and the associated expansion of GVCs, is often pitched as widening the opportunities for inclusive growth and shared prosperity.</li>
<li>The underlying assumption is that because GVCs allow developing countries to focus on individual links in the chain, their firms can integrate with the world economy &ldquo;on a shoestring&rdquo; without facing the large risks (and costs) incurred by investing in all the tasks required for producing the finished product or services (e.g. World Bank et al., 2017).</li>
<li>According to this view, developing countries can thereby more easily reap the benefits of their major comparative advantage: abundant cheap labour. Following this logic, such integration in the global economy should lead to a reduction of inequality in the South as demand for unskilled labour increases.</li>
</ul>
<h3>GVCS, jobs off shoring, processing trade and income polarization in manufacturing</h3>
<p>Reality is, that trade patterns under hyperglobalization contributed to polarizing domestic income and wealth distribution not only in the North but also in the South, thus exacerbating domestic economic inequalities.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Prevalence of oligopolistic enterprises in exports of manufactures and how export market structures can affect income distribution. Buying practices of lead firms can lead to shaving markups and cost cutting by suppliers that leave them unable to innovate and resistant to improvements in wages or labour standards&rdquo;.</li>
<li>In developing countries, the negative impact of international trade on inequality was partly the result of the proliferation of special processing trade regimes and EPZs(Export Processing Zones). Many countries created regimes favoring exporters, with the objective of attracting or preserving investment, production and jobs on their shores. The associated risk, however, is that such regimes merely subsidize labour-intensive assembly work or, more precisely, subsidize the organization of low-cost and low-productivity assembly work by large exporters or foreign TNCs in control of GVCs.</li>
<li>Evidence accumulating in recent years, particularly from experiences in China, points to the limited benefits of such policies for the broader economy and their negative effects on income distribution. This meant that, while China could count on foreign TNCs to integrate its economy into GVCs, it could not rely on them to significantly upgrade the skills and the pay of its workforce or bolster its productive capacities.</li>
<li>The ongoing success of China at bolstering its productive capacities &ndash; thus slowly breaking out of the trap of processing trade and moving up the value ladder &ndash; has crucially relied on its capacity to claim and use policy space to actively leverage trade through targeted industrial and other policies aiming at raising domestic value added in manufacturing exports (Poon, 2014, 2018). It has also relied on the ability of the Chinese authorities to develop independent financing mechanisms and acquire control over foreign assets, which are being perceived by developed countries as a threat to their own business interests (e.g. USTR, 2018).</li>
</ul>
<h3>Concentration in export markets, intangible barriers to competition and corporate rents</h3>
<p>To an even larger extent than domestic markets, global exports today are dominated by very large companies, most of them TNC.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Recent evidence from aggregated firm-level data on goods exports (excluding the oil sector, as well as services) shows that, within the very restricted circle of exporting firms, the top 1 per cent accounted for 57 per cent of country exports on average in 2014. Moreover, while the share of the top 5 per cent exceeded 80 per cent of country export revenues on average, the top 25 per cent accounted for virtually all country exports.</li>
<li>The Implications include both the polarizing effects of trade on income distribution resulting from concentration and monopolistic behaviour of large firms, as well as plausible negative macro-financial externalities that harm the potential for inclusive development.</li>
<li>This is because corporate rents (and thus higher profits) also arise out of strategies aimed at instrumentalizing other actors, by lobbying policymakers, buying out competitors, sharing markets, collusion, blocking new entrants, etc.</li>
<li>Paradoxically, even as tangible barriers to trade imposed by governments, such as tariffs and quotas, have been declining over the last 30 years or so, intangible barriers to competition rooted in &ldquo;free trade&rdquo; treaties and erected by large firms themselves have surged, as they exploit the increased legal protection of intellectual property and the broadening scope for intangible intra-firm trade</li>
<li>As the World Trade Organization (WTO, 2012) notes, &ldquo;many products that used to be traded as low-technology goods or commodities now contain a higher proportion of invention and design in their value&rdquo;, that is, protected intellectual property content. In short, knowledge intensive intangible assets are valuable because they ensure a certain degree of market power, not because they represent an inherent and benevolent force for innovation and technological progress.</li>
<li>IPR charges are merely one of the many forms of more widespread profit shifting within companies or groups, that weigh negatively on public finances and collective wage bargaining in many countries. Indeed, the largest recipient country (the United States) is simultaneously the victim of the most massive IPR-related corporate tax avoidance by TNCs &ldquo;trading&rdquo; intangibles.</li>
<li>This increase in profits of large firms has been a major driver of global functional inequality, associated with declines in the global labour income share during the last two decades. Market concentration increases as industries become progressively dominated by &ldquo;superstar&rdquo; firms with high profits and low shares of labour in firm value added, and as the importance of superstar firms increases, the aggregate labour share tends to fall.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Unequalizing Trade: Macroeconomic Risks and Development Policy Challenges</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The belief that international trade can be an &ldquo;engine for development&rdquo; and help establish an inclusive growth path, as recently affirmed in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development , is neither new nor unreasonable.</li>
<li>Yet, these objectives should not lead to simplistic advocacy of <em><strong>free trade</strong></em>. When UNCTAD was convened for the first time in 1964, policymakers from the South were concerned that their countries were increasingly being marginalized by an international trading system that added to polarizing pressures in the global economy.</li>
<li>More than half a century later, and despite myriad changes in the volume, direction and governance of cross-border trade, such concerns have surfaced once again, in advanced-economies as well as in developing economies.</li>
<li>It is evident that increased trade under hyperglobalization has created opportunities for structural change, but only in very limited parts of the Global South. Besides the first-tier NIEs and more recently China, only a few countries have managed to leverage trade as a means for mobilizing and reallocating productive factors away from primary commodities towards higher value added manufacturing and service activities.</li>
<li>These outcomes pose several macroeconomic risks and development challenges, which are starkly evident today. The main concern is probably the negative impact that trade under hyperglobalization has had on aggregate demand.</li>
<li>Facing weaker prospective sales in a context of weak aggregate demand and compounded by the post-crisis turn to austerity, large corporations have cut back on investment, further depressing aggregate demand and contributing to slower trade in recent years.</li>
<li>In such an environment, incentives are strong for seeking to boost profitability through means other than raising productivity, such as intensifying international competition between workers and between governments to reduce labour and tax costs, crushing or buying up competitors to build up market dominance and increase markups, etc. The unfortunate truth is that the attempts of individual TNCs to enhance their own market position through such strategies only makes the broader economic system more fragile and vulnerable, since together they lead to more inequality, under-consumption, debt and, consequently, macroeconomic vulnerability.</li>
<li>This focus on employment has largely been lost in the period of hyperglobalization, and also finds little reflection in the &ldquo;trade&rdquo; and &ldquo;economic cooperation&rdquo; agreements that have dominated the landscape.</li>
</ul>
<p></p>
<h1 id="3" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 24px;">Chapter 3: Economic Development In A Digital World:<br />Prospects, Pitfalls And Policy Options</span></h1>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Digital technologies have already transformed how people communicate, learn, work and shop. They are also changing the geography of economic activity through their impact on corporate strategy, investment behaviour and trade flows.</li>
<li>From a development perspective, the promise of digitalization is that it will open new sectors, promote new markets, boost innovation and generate the productivity gains needed to lift living standards in developing countries. Fulfilling this promise of a new digital future will, for many developing countries, require an ambitious programme of infrastructure support and skills training.</li>
<li>Today&rsquo;s hyperglobalized world has become more unequal, unstable and insecure: rent extraction has become an acceptable feature of doing business at the top of the corporate food chain and unchecked competition has made for precarious working conditions for many at the bottom. As a result, the gains from technological progress and open economies have been captured by a small portion of society, while their costs have been carried by an increasingly frustrated majority.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Digital Technologies In Value Chains: Potential Opportunities For Income Generation And Upgrading</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Digital technologies are based on information that is recorded in binary code of combinations of the digits 0 and 1, also called &ldquo;bits&rdquo;, which represent words and images (Negroponte, 1995).</li>
<li>The distribution of value added and upgrading in traditional value chains</li>
<li>Since many developing countries have faced difficulties in achieving the policy, their place in Global Value Chains has tended to be located on the lower portions rather than higher.</li>
<li>However, in the absence of solid evidence on significant &ldquo;spillovers&rdquo; from participation in value chains, policymakers should also continue to look for ways to establish domestic forward and backward linkages that facilitate a rising share of domestically generated value added, encourage more widespread transfers of technology and diffusion of knowledge, and support economic diversification and upgrading towards higher value added activities that rely on more sophisticated technology and skill sets.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Digitalization: Potential impacts on the manufacturing process</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>What may be most significant of all is that digital technologies enable more decentralized and flexible production and distribution, reducing some of the scale economies that dominated the era of mass production. This can result in a &ldquo;hyper-segmentation of markets, activities and technologies&rdquo; whereby companies of varying sizes can respond to and accommodate multiple demand segments, and small producers can cater to niche markets that need not be in geographical proximity.</li>
<li>The use of new digital technologies may, therefore, allow developing countries to add more value in their production stages, whether or not the final product is for export or domestic consumption.</li>
<li>However, this depends crucially not only on available infrastructure but on access to data and a supportive ecosystem.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Potential Impacts on Income Generation</h2>
<h3>The Production Segment</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Much of the debate on digitalization has focused on the use of industrial robots in the production segment of the manufacturing process.</li>
<li>The Report suggested that, for now at least, robot-based automation per se does not invalidate the traditional role of industrialization as a development strategy for lower-income countries moving into manufacturing activities (such as clothing and leather sectors) dominated by manual and routine tasks, although in countries already experiencing premature deindustrialization and low rates of investment, the danger of getting trapped in these low-value-added sectors is likely to increase.</li>
<li>The small shares across all economies could indicate that digitalization is little more than a media hype. But these small numbers could also be a result of the slack in global demand following the global financial crisis, which has been a key factor holding back productive.</li>
</ul>
<h3>The Pre And Post-Production Segments</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The economic benefits of owning data in terms of transforming it into a profitable asset increase with the volume of data. This gives an advantage to first movers. They are most easily able to scale up their initial investment in data intelligence and analytics, thereby increasing the value of their data and associated knowledge base.</li>
<li>Such first-mover advantages underline both the urgency with which developing countries need to act and the difficulties and associated policy challenges related to their engaging in activities in the post-production segment of digitized value chains.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Potential Impact on Governance and Distributional Outcomes</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>More recently, as value chains have entered (and reconfigured) manufacturing sectors and as developing countries have provided more links in these chains, the international division of labour has become more fragmented, employment relations more fractured and governance arrangements more complex.</li>
<li>At the same time, large corporations have shifted their attention to &ldquo;core competencies&rdquo; and increasingly employed a range of financial instruments, such as share buy-backs and mergers and acquisitions, to increase their &ldquo;value&rdquo; while cost containment, through outsourcing, work intensification, segmented labour markets and insecure supplier contracts, has become the principal strategy in managing the production process.</li>
<li>Another way in which digitization is impacting distribution is through the emergence of platform monopolies, in which the key strategic asset of the lead firm is control and use of digitized data to organize and mediate transactions between the various actors in the chain.</li>
<li>The domination of the United States is evident in social media and content platforms, with the top seven such firms all originating there.</li>
<li>The only exception is China, which has been able to expand its own firms by preventing the global firms from entering its market.</li>
<li>Similarly, Internet search platforms are dominated by United States firms, other than Baidu in China and Yandex from the Russian Federation.</li>
<li>This is also true for mobile ecosystems, with three United States-based firms completely dominant: Android with 81.7 per cent market share, iOS with 17.9 per cent and Windows with 0.3 per cent of the global market. Internet of Things (IoT) or industrial digital platforms are similarly dominated by companies from the United States and Europe.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Adapting Economic Policies to a Digital World</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>While new digital technologies may provide additional impetus to income generation in developing countries, they also pose challenges because of the potential for greater monopoly control in some areas and the distributional implications of corporate rent-seeking.</li>
<li>International cooperation, including in the form of South&ndash;South cooperation, is particularly relevant for overcoming digital divides and addressing fiscal and regulatory issues.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Facilitating integration into a digital economy and ensuring an equitable sharing of its benefits</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Digital infrastructure and digital capabilities: Basic conditions for integrating into a digital world</li>
<li>Industrial policy</li>
<li>Innovation policy</li>
<li>Regulatory policies</li>
<li>Control and use of data</li>
</ul>
<h3>A. Digital Infrastructure and Digital Capabilities: Basic Conditions for Integrating into a Digital World</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A digital economy is built on digital infrastructure and digital capabilities. Three broad interrelated components of digital infrastructure which can be identified are:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Networks</li>
<li>Software</li>
<li>Data</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>● And digital capabilities are needed to use them effectively.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Digital Infrastructure</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Networks</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Over the past two decades, countries have been steadily building their digital networks (i.e. ICT and broadband infrastructure) as the principal tool for collecting and transmitting Information flows.</li>
<li>This ICT infrastructure forms the base of the digital infrastructure as it provides Internet access to the population, while broadband infrastructure helps in delivering large amounts of data at a much faster speed.</li>
<li>Internet access and connectivity dominated by private Internet service providers. However, remote areas were not adequately served by private companies. Since the universality of broadband infrastructure is a prerequisite for a more equitable digital economy, this points to the need for enhanced public investment in broadband infrastructure in most developing countries.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Software</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Its use across a full range of economic activities, with increasing emphasis on access through a cloud computing infrastructure.</li>
<li>Cloud computing combines software power with network power allowing quick, wide and deep global spread of relatively inexpensive cutting-edge technologies.</li>
<li>However, cloud applications provide its owners immense power, as dependencies, for example, global cloud applications have provided Google, Facebook, Uber, etc. the power to become the virtual control panels for reorganizing entire sectors.</li>
<li>This creates a policy challenge for developing countries whose national antitrust legislation may not be adequate to address the cross-sectoral market power increasingly held by such multinational companies.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Data</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>This is, arguably, the most important component of the digital infrastructure, providing the basis for generating huge profit streams and potentially changing the relative positions of countries in terms of their shares in global production, consumption, investment and international trade.</li>
<li>Many observers have termed &ldquo;data&rdquo; the &ldquo;new oil&rdquo;, not only because they have to be extracted and processed from an initially unrefined state, but because processed data can also give monopolistic powers to its owners. Indeed, because (unlike oil) data are not a finite resource, the ability to exclude competitors from access can generate even more monopoly power and rent-seeking behaviour.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p>The challenges faced by developing countries in ensuring such digital infrastructure are evident from the still large gaps in most developing countries.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Broadband speed is a crucial determinant of the potential for digitalization and related business, and it remains relatively much slower in most developing countries. Reducing these large infrastructure deficits is a huge task that will require large investments.</li>
<li>In addition to digital infrastructure, building a digital economy obviously requires the presence of supportive physical infrastructure and institutions, of which continuous power connections and access to banking and financial institutions are obviously crucial.</li>
<li>Due to rapid advancement of digital technologies there is a growing &ldquo;digital skill gap&rdquo; which is being felt by both developed and developing countries. To develop digital skills, efforts have to be made by the developing countries at various levels: introducing digital education in schools and universities, upskilling the digital skills of the existing workforce, running special basic and advanced skill development programmes for the youth and older persons</li>
</ul>
<h3>Digital Capabilities</h3>
<p>These are also referred to as <strong><em>digital skills or digital competence</em></strong>.</p>
<p><strong>LO-ITU (2017) describe four kinds of such skills:</strong></p>
<ol>
<li>basic digital skills, related to the effective use of technology, including web research, online communications, etc.;</li>
<li>soft skills necessary to ensure collaborative work among professionals;</li>
<li>advanced digital skills related to technology development such as coding, software and app development, etc.; and</li>
<li>digital entrepreneurship which includes digital skills required by entrepreneurs for strategic planning, market research, business analysis,</li>
</ol>
<p>All these should ideally be part of an overall national strategy of building digital skills for the twenty-first century.</p>
<h3>B. Industrial Policy</h3>
<p>Two elements of the changing dynamics of the world economy may be crucial for the effectiveness of industrial policies:</p>
<ol>
<li>The move towards a digital economy and its associated increased systemic interactions between innovation, education, production and services activities;</li>
<li>The increased weight of developing countries in the global economy, which may allow for a rebalancing of external and domestic markets as destinations of developing countries&rsquo; production activities.</li>
</ol>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Industrial policies for digitalization must seek to exploit the potential of using new technologies for transformational purposes to create and shape new products and new markets, as well as to compensate for the job destruction that the application of such technologies may cause.&nbsp;</li>
<li>A digital strategy must also adapt to the changed structure of finance for investment in the digital economy. Contrary to tangible assets &ndash; such as buildings, machines or particular plots of land &ndash; intangible assets, such as data, software, market analysis, organizational design, patents, copyrights and the like, tend to be unique or most valuable supporting investment in intangibles may well imply an increased role for development banks as sources of finance or of specialized financing vehicles.</li>
</ul>
<h3>C. Innovation Policy</h3>
<p>The World Intellectual Property Organization&rsquo;s global innovation index shows that a few developing countries have caught up on certain innovation variables, even though significant divides remain.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Digitalization may provide specific opportunities for frugal innovation by developing country firms because they tend to reduce the cost of innovation.</li>
<li>Such customization of new digital technologies can be related to the idea of frugal innovations, which are those that provide &ldquo;new functionality at lower cost&rdquo;.</li>
<li>Similarly, the digital economy may also open up new possibilities for more reverse innovation, which refers to ideas, technologies and products that may be generated in developing countries but are subsequently used by firms from developed countries.</li>
<li>Digital innovations increasingly rely on big-data analytics and other digital technologies. Therefore, policies designed to prevent monopolistic control and to ensure that small and medium producers and potential innovators have affordable access to such data, are obviously important.</li>
<li>In addition to a sizeable increase in R&amp;D spending and the size of in-house design departments, enhanced skilled labour migration in the form of both intellectual returnees and skilled expatriates from developed countries could provide substantial support to developing countries&rsquo; more active innovation policy.</li>
<li>While returnees appear to have played a crucial role for example in the development of the photovoltaic industry in China (Luo et al., 2017)</li>
<li>Expatiates have been instrumental in creating the designs for automobile production in developing countries such as Brazil, <em><strong>India</strong></em> and Morocco, as well as in Romania.</li>
<li>There, designers have focused on the functionalities and price ranges that would appeal to customers in developing countries, as well as to relatively low-income customers in developed countries.</li>
</ul>
<h3>D. Regulatory Policies</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The digital economy creates significant new regulatory policy challenges because the network effects and economies of scale associated with digitalization can cause rising inequality and generate barriers to market entry.</li>
<li>First-mover advantages in the form of benefits from controlling and scaling large volumes of data tend to create a few highly profitable large firms and &ldquo;winner-takes-most&rdquo; concerns.</li>
<li>The resulting increases in market concentration may sizeably augment the financial power of a few leading firms and cause increased rent-seeking, anticompetitive practices and attempts to block actual or potential competitors.</li>
<li>This means that established competition and antitrust policies may be unsuited to the digital economy.</li>
<li>The overwhelming control over digital platforms by a few firms, mostly based in the United States, the United Kingdom and some other European countries, points to the need for active consideration of policies to prevent anticompetitive behaviour by such firms, as well as potential misuse of data that are collected in the process.</li>
<li>It also provides an inkling of the difficulties associated with developing countries wishing to break into these areas.</li>
<li>But for developing countries an additional concern could be the concentration of profits generated in such platforms by the companies that are largely based in the North.</li>
<li>Such <em><strong>super-platforms</strong></em> (companies that dominate the digital landscape like Google, Apple and Amazon) are increasingly using algorithms based on big data to drive away competition.</li>
<li>The algorithms monitor the price changes and swiftly react to competitor&rsquo;s price reduction, similarly it also follows price increases when sustainable, such as when others follow in a timely manner, so that all competitors raise prices and profit together leading to an outcome not much different from that arrived by collusion.</li>
<li>This makes it extremely difficult to hold the superplatforms liable for the pricing decisions of their self-learning algorithms, which may transfer wealth from consumers to sellers.</li>
<li>Although the super-platforms compete, they can also become &ldquo;frenemies&rdquo; to maximize joint profits and drive away competition.22 This interdependence of super-platforms can severely hinder innovations as companies know that they cannot effectively reach consumers unless admitted by super-platforms.</li>
<li>There are other ways in which such digital platform companies can slip through regulatory cracks.</li>
</ul>
<p>However, since the existing digital platforms are changing the competitive landscape, there is a need to regulate the digital platforms in order to provide developing countries&rsquo; firms/platforms with an opportunity to compete with the existing platforms and avail themselves of new opportunities in the digital world.</p>
<p>Developing country governments need to be aware of these concerns before signing on to agreements that could effectively reduce their national sovereignty and policy space in the digital world.</p>
<h3>E. Control and Use of Data</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>All companies, and not just digital platforms, need to be able to collect and analyse data for innovation and efficiency gains.</li>
<li>However, access to and control of data can be, indeed has long been, a source of market power and can create barriers to entry for new players. Policymakers have had to strike a balance between these conflicting pressures. Perhaps the single biggest difference with firms and platforms in the digital economy is that controlling data is the business model.</li>
<li>For countries to be able to build their data infrastructures and use their data to provide efficient public goods and services to their citizens, it is important for the countries to control their data and be able to use/share their data and regulate its flow.</li>
<li>Doing so help them design policies for developing data processing skills in the pre-production and postproduction stages as well as encourage customized production.</li>
</ul>
<p>Data is not a homogeneous product and there is a need, to have a clear distinction between personal and non-personal data.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Personal Data - data on the consumers&rsquo; behavioural patterns or education data, transport data or health data of a country, which requires to be regulated and protected.</li>
<li>Rest, non-personal data needs to be allowed to flow freely within the country</li>
</ul>
<p>Developing countries need to retain their data sovereignty to build their digital skills and avoid rules which restrict their ability to monitor the flow of their national data.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>To encourage domestic linkages of foreign investments and to develop domestic digital capacities and digital infrastructure to upgrade in value chains, many governments are using localization measures, akin to what they used when they designed their FDI policies</li>
<li>In the context of the digital economy, localization measures include requirements such as locating servers and/or computing facilities within the national boundaries which can encourage foreign firms to invest in domestic digital infrastructure and allow local authorities to enforce national laws and regulations.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>For example, the Decree on Information Technology Services 2013 in Viet Nam required every digital service or website to locate at least one server in Viet Nam.</li>
<li>In the Philippines, a draft administrative order in 2014 required government agencies to buy cloud services from the Philippine Government&rsquo;s cloud.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Such policies can be adopted to promote</strong></p>
<ol>
<li>Local digital capabilities;</li>
<li>Infant industry protection;</li>
<li>Avoiding long-term dependency on foreign-owned and located digital infrastructure;</li>
<li>To protect privacy of the citizens, their legal jurisdictions and</li>
<li>National cyber sovereignty.</li>
</ol>
<h3>Trade and Investment Rules in the Digital Era</h3>
<p><strong>Concerns</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A<a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/425drishti_ias_image2.png" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/425drishti_ias_image2.png" style="float: right;" width="341" height="207" /></a>greements, like the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), include binding rules on governments&rsquo; ability to restrict use or location of computing facilities inside the national boundaries. Some of the proposals on e-commerce in the WTO include binding rules on cross-border data transfers and localization restrictions.</li>
<li>Such rules, being put forward as part of progressively expanding e-commerce chapters in free trade agreements (FTAs), may limit the ability of the governments to gain from FDI to build their national digital technological capacity and skills.</li>
<li>Localization rules, as discussed in the previous section, have been extensively used by the developed countries in the earlier phase of digitalization and are still being used. Some of the rules in existing trade agreements, as well as those under negotiation, restrict the flexibilities of the signatory governments to adopt these localization measures.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Way Forward</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>To keep up in the ongoing technological revolution, developing countries are in urgent need of international technology transfers (ITT) from the developed countries and other developing countries which have been able to develop advanced digital technologies.</li>
<li>The new digital technologies using AI, robots and IoT can potentially help developing countries to upgrade in value chains by increasing the digital content in the production stages.</li>
<li>For digital technology transfers in developing countries, policies around source-code sharing can play an important role in encouraging ITT and developing national digital skills.</li>
<li>While technology transfers need to be encouraged, developing countries should be proactive in increasing the digital content in their production processes, by supporting more domestically produced digital services like ICT services and telecommunication services in their manufacturing or by using digital technologies to digitalize their production. Digitalized products refer to those products which were earlier exported physically but are now being electronically transmitted, for example, films, printed matter, sound and media, software and video games.</li>
</ul>
<p>However, technology transfers from foreign firms by hosting FDI has rarely happened automatically and developing countries have always used targeted policies to encourage technology spillovers, through joint ventures, technology licensing, technology transfer clauses in their investment agreements, training arrangements.</p>
<p>The bottom line is that the potential for development provided by digital technologies can be easily eclipsed if developing countries are not given the flexibility and policy space to design their economic and industrial policies and national regulatory frameworks to promote digital infrastructure and digital capacities.</p>
<h3>South&ndash;South and Triangular Cooperation for a Digital World</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Digital cooperation at the regional level can be added to the ongoing regional integration initiatives in the South, including in Africa.</li>
<li>UNTCAD suggested a ten-point South&ndash; South digital cooperation agenda which includes:</li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li>Building a data economy.</li>
<li>Building cloud computing infrastructure.</li>
<li>Strengthening broadband infrastructure.</li>
<li>Promoting e-commerce in the region.</li>
<li>Promoting regional digital payments.</li>
<li>Progressing on single digital market in the region.</li>
<li>Sharing experiences on e-government.</li>
<li>Forging partnerships for building smart cities.</li>
<li>Promoting digital innovations and technologies.</li>
<li>Building statistics for measuring digitization.</li>
</ol>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>An important step towards digital cooperation is to build a regional data economy among neighbouring countries. This can help each country as they can use the big data of the region to develop AI for manufacturing customized digital products. However, to build a regional data economy, countries first need to <em><strong>"own"</strong></em> their data.&nbsp;</li>
<li>Ownership of data at the national level by governments will allow the countries to decide with whom to share their data.</li>
<li>For all countries in a region to have a level playing field in terms of access to opportunities arising from cloud computing, it is important that all countries within a regional bloc have a similar broadband ecosystem.</li>
</ul>
<h2>The Way Forward for Developing Countries</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The simple truth for the governments of developing counties is that realizing the potential benefits from a digital world will be difficult, and that ensuring those benefits have a wide social reach will be more difficult still. It requires ambitious policies in a wide range of areas that must be employed in a coherent way.</li>
<li>Digital preparedness in many developing countries will require international support and cooperation;</li>
<li>Some of the key policies that can help developing countries face the challenges posed by the digital revolution and increase their developmental gains are as follows:</li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li><strong>Building digital infrastructure.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Devising national data regulatory policies.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Regulating digital platforms and developing national marketing platforms.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Taxing the super-firms.</strong><br />Taxing these firms where their activities are based rather than where they declare their headquarters will help in redistributing their rents and increase government revenues.</li>
<li><strong>Drawing up digital industrial policies.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Harnessing digital start-ups.</strong><br />While many developing countries are encouraging digital start-ups as the primary source of digital innovations, there is a need for a more comprehensive policy with respect to digital start-ups, which prevents the gains of innovations flowing out of the country. Direct investment by governments in corporate equities can sustain digital innovations, enhance use of advanced technology and promote reverse innovations.</li>
<li><strong>Developing digital competencies.</strong></li>
</ol>
<p></p>
<h1 id="4" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 24px;">Chapter 4: Bridging Gaps or Widening Divides:<br />Infrastructure Development And Structural Transformation</span></h1>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Aschauer&rsquo;s influential work (1989) found evidence for the widely accepted wisdom that &ldquo;roads lead to prosperity&rdquo; (see also Deng, 2013). Looking at the economy of the United States from 1948 to 1985, he concluded that infrastructure investments led to productivity increases, finding that a 10 per cent rise in infrastructure stock over time was associated with a 4 per cent increase in productivity. The study even showed that the converse also held: declining infrastructure investment from 1970 to 1985 was responsible for declining output per capita over the same period in the United States.</li>
<li>This chapter addresses the role of infrastructure in the process of structural transformation as its central question.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Infrastructure Matters: Conceptual Issues and Historical Lessons</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Types of infrastructure</li>
<li>Infrastructure and the virtuous circle of growth</li>
<li>Historical experiences</li>
</ul>
<h3>Types of Infrastructure</h3>
<p>Infrastructure encompasses a broad category of goods and services that involve investments in both the social and physical stock of capital.</p>
<p>Hirschman, defined infrastructure as those &ldquo;basic services without which primary, secondary and tertiary productive activities cannot function&rdquo;</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Networked Infrastructure Includes:</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Energy</li>
<li>Water</li>
<li>Public Transport</li>
<li>Telecommunications Sector</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The infrastructure services dealing with water provision include
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>dams and hydropower;</li>
<li>water supply;</li>
<li>wastewater, sanitation and water quality;</li>
<li>storm water systems; irrigation and drainage;</li>
<li>river and coastal works;</li>
<li>pipelines and canals; and</li>
<li>natural water infrastructure</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Transport Infrastructure includes: roads, railways, airports, seaports, bridges, waterways and tramways.</li>
<li>Like energy, transportation infrastructure calls for large-scale investment projects and have a long gestation period.</li>
<li>But its provision dramatically increases both economic productivity and quality of life.</li>
<li>Like in rural areas, access to affordable energy can boost farm productivity because of its uses in pumping water for irrigation, mechanization, agricultural processing and post-harvest storage.</li>
<li>An example of the strong network externalities associated with infrastructure comes from telecommunications infrastructure. For example, Hjort and Poulsen (2017) report that new submarine telecom cables in different parts of Africa brought the arrival of fast Internet, leading to the emergence of technology start-ups and a manufacturing sector that produces Internet-capable devices to serve the region, an improvement of supply chain coordination enhancing productivity in manufacturing and agribusiness, and the creation of jobs in the ICT sector and elsewhere.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Infrastructure and the Virtuous Circle of Growth</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>There are ways in which infrastructure spending can drive productivity and growth.</li>
<li>Industrial development was central to Hirschman&rsquo;s idea that developing countries should pursue <em><strong>"unbalanced growth"</strong></em> with productive resources targeted at a few sectors.</li>
<li>This was based on the belief that the resulting disruption would not only stimulate further private investment in the favoured sectors but would help promote various organizational and other capabilities whose shortage might otherwise curtail the growth process.</li>
<li>Hirschman believed that this framework would provide the best guide for the efficient sequencing of infrastructure spending.</li>
<li>The government spending on infrastructure investment boosts aggregate demand, potentially sparking broader-based output growth through scale economies which feed into productivity increases. This typically leads to greater private sector investment, and by extension, also raises private demand for physical capital over a longer time-horizon.</li>
<li>Infrastructure investment can simultaneously address supply-side constraints and thereby raise the productivity of other activities. Insofar as this reduces costs and improves the durability of private capital investment, it also enables the private sector to spend less on maintaining its own capital, releasing resources for other productive investment. Infrastructure provision that promotes social inclusion &ndash; such as better housing and improvements in health, education, sanitation and nutrition &ndash; enhances labour productivity in addition to promoting social welfare.</li>
<li>Conversely, low or insufficient infrastructure can handicap enterprises by increasing production costs. Indeed, countries that have experienced stalled industrialization or premature deindustrialization have tended to have inconsistent trajectories of infrastructure investments, that have been inadequate overall and sometimes pulled the economy in other directions.</li>
<li>In India, for example, several studies have noted that underinvestment in infrastructure required for manufacturing sector (Ghosh, 2012; Simon and Natarajan, 2017) has constrained private investment. By contrast, the rise of information technology services and digital products was possible in India because the conditions for the expansion of telecommunications and broadband networks were relatively less costly for the government to deliver.</li>
<li>The resulting infrastructure gaps then become constraints on supply. For example, Mesquita Moreira et al. (2013) found that high transportation costs were associated with falling exports in Chile and Peru.</li>
<li>While poor infrastructure in Africa increased transport and energy costs for local firms, with severe consequences for manufacturing productivity and competitiveness.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Historical Experiences</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>While infrastructure can boost productivity growth through a variety of channels, its contribution to sustaining a virtuous development circle does not occur in an institutional or policy vacuum.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Europe</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The gains that infrastructure brought during the industrial revolution, first in England and then in continental European countries, were not only the result of long-standing investments spanning decades or even centuries; they were often built on clear policy visions that placed infrastructure at the centre of nation-building efforts.</li>
<li>Conceived in 1830, Chevalier&rsquo;s impressive plan was for a grand European transport system to connect the entire continent with rails, roads and shipping routes, whereby railway lines spanning over 60,000 km would traverse from the Mediterranean, the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea (through northbound lines), linking them to eastbound destinations of Flanders at the North Sea via Warsaw, Vilnius, Riga and St Petersburg to the Russian Pacific (H&ouml;gselius et al., 2015; Drolet, 2015).</li>
<li>He believed that enhanced connectivity between regions would encourage trade, commerce and industrialization in Europe and the Ottoman Empire, and that this was the only way to foster political harmony. This vision tied &ldquo;public works&rdquo; (as infrastructure was then known) intimately with the economic, political and industrial progress of Europe at the time.</li>
<li>The essential features of this plan were indeed adopted by France as well as a number of European countries that became independent between 1830 and 1871, including Belgium, the German Empire, Greece, Italy, Serbia and Romania; and it even led to cross-country multilateral initiatives for infrastructure expansion</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>USA</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In the United States, the development of transport (notably railway) stimulated several industries such as iron, steel and timber; encouraged financial enterprise by promoting private investments into these sectors and railway construction; and contributed directly to the generation of national income through the provision and expansion of interregional and local transportation services</li>
<li>Bold public moves on infrastructure in the United States over two centuries that transformed the country and its economic potential:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Construction of the Erie Canal, which opened a water route to the west;</li>
<li>Lincoln&rsquo;s support for the transcontinental railroad, which transformed the country and enabled vast new cities to emerge;</li>
<li>Land Grant colleges that started in the midnineteenth century, which dramatically expanded access to higher education;</li>
<li>The Homestead Act of 1852, which enabled the westward expansion of population and settlement;</li>
<li>The construction of the Panama Canal in the early twentieth century, which enabled ships to pass between Atlantic and Pacific oceans and effectively sealed the hegemony of the United States in the region for the next century;</li>
<li>The Rural Electrification Administration of the Franklin D. Roosevelt government, which brought electricity to the rural United States with all its attendant benefits;</li>
<li>The GI Bill (Serviceman&rsquo;s Readjustment Act of 1944), which provided free college education and low-interest home and business loans to all veterans with more than 90 days in uniform, thereby creating a secure domestic market;</li>
<li>The interstate highway system created by Eisenhower&rsquo;s Federal Aid Highway Act, which revitalized the economy and modernized the United States.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>Infrastructure in Developing Countries</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Needs and gaps</li>
<li>The financing gap narrative</li>
</ul>
<h3>Needs and Gaps</h3>
<p>The emphasis on a &ldquo;top-down&rdquo; approach based on the use of global models is to the detriment of a &ldquo;bottom-up&rdquo; assessment of needs based on country-specific circumstances and specific long-term development strategies.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>There are large regional and intraregional variations in current infrastructure investment, for instance, In Africa, Ethiopia and United Republic of Tanzania spend well above 5 per cent of GDP on infrastructure, while Nigeria and South Africa (the region&rsquo;s two largest economies) have expenditures of just above 3 per cent and Egypt just over 2 per cent.</li>
<li>In Latin America, the regional average is, to a large extent, influenced by low infrastructure expenditure in the region&rsquo;s larger economies, with Argentina, Brazil and Mexico spending less than 2 per cent of GDP in 2015.</li>
<li>In Asia, at one extreme, East Asia spent 5.8 per cent of its GDP on infrastructure in 2011, but this subregional average was dominated by China, which showed infrastructure expenditure of 6.8 per cent of GDP over 2010&ndash;2014. At the other extreme, South-East Asia spent just 2.1 per cent, as the economies hit by the East Asian financial crisis of 1997 (such as Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand) experienced significant declines in public spending as a proportion of GDP that have not fully recovered thereafter.</li>
</ul>
<p>Therefore, while on the whole Asia invests more and Africa andLatin America invest less in infrastructure development, no clear patterns emerge within regions, even in terms of country size or per capita income.</p>
<h3>The &ldquo;Financing-Gap&rdquo; Narrative</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>There is the need for countries to have a comprehensive long-term vision that recognizes the need to coordinate across sectors, regions and timelines, along with a more targeted medium-term planned approach towards infrastructure creation.</li>
<li>This contrasts, quite sharply, with the current approach to infrastructure investment that looks at individual projects on a case-by-case basis to ensure that they are &ldquo;bankable&rdquo; (assuring repayment of loans taken for such investment) and requires that all investors in such projects get adequate returns.</li>
</ul>
<p>The financing gap narrative with respect to infrastructure is built around a few key points.</p>
<ol>
<li>First, estimated infrastructure investment gaps in each country (discussed above) are taken to imply a financing gap of a similar order of magnitude.</li>
<li>Second, it is taken for granted that national public sectors in most countries are financially constrained with limited budgetary resources, face governance problems and run the risk of running into debt sustainability issues if they undertake infrastructure investments on the scale needed in the coming years.</li>
<li>Third, given this public resource constraint, private capital, which is typically invested in short-term financial assets, should be unlocked for infrastructure projects.</li>
<li>Fourth, for this to occur, a pipeline of &ldquo;bankable&rdquo; projects needs to be developed.</li>
</ol>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The standard diagnosis is that projects that fit that profile are currently scarce and the risk-adjusted returns of existing projects are too low to attract private investors.&nbsp;</li>
<li>Numerous factors are pinpointed as restricting the delivery of &ldquo;bankable&rdquo; projects.</li>
<li>These include low preparation capacity, high transaction costs, lack of liquid financial instruments, weak regulatory frameworks and legal opposition, along with various types of risks at the different phases of the life cycle of a project, such as: macroeconomic, political, technical and environmental risks at the phase of preparation; construction risks (overrun, cost escalation) during construction phase; and demand, operating and revenue risks (e.g. price and exchange risks; unrealized projected demand) at the operation phase.</li>
<li>In order to expand the supply of &ldquo;bankable&rdquo; projects, there should be clear identification of actual returns and possible risks (including of default); development of governance structures to ensure approval of stakeholders, including through compensation schemes; provision of de-risking instruments such as sovereign and credit guarantees; and government mapping of long-term investment paths to reduce investors&rsquo; uncertainty about the future.</li>
</ul>
<h2>A Framework for Considering the Role of Infrastructure in Development</h2>
<ol>
<li>Some basic consider</li>
<li>The role of planning in infrastructure development</li>
<li>Experiences with national development plans: Country evidence</li>
</ol>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A strategy of unbalanced growth, as noted earlier, assumes that there are some sectors that generate more forward and backward linkages than others and that government policy should target those sectors in terms of its efforts to mobilize, channel and manage resources and capabilities in ways that support a more virtuous growth circle.</li>
<li>This chapter has argued that infrastructure programmes should also be seen as a complementary part of such a development strategy.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Some Basic Considerations</h3>
<p>Some critical considerations that have direct relevance for organizing infrastructure investments in developing countries are as follows:</p>
<ol>
<li>The impact of infrastructure depends on the kind of investment</li>
<li>The impact of infrastructure is context- and sector-specific.<br />Like the infrastructure development has immediate and relatively large impacts on poorer countries, as opposed to advanced countries where there is already a relatively good network of infrastructure in place.</li>
<li>The impact of infrastructure is non-linear<br />Greater infrastructure investment does not always lead immediately to faster growth.</li>
<li>The impact of infrastructure depends on network effects within and between different kinds of investments.<br />All forms of modern infrastructure &ndash; transport, electricity, telecommunications and broadband &ndash; exhibit their own network effects. For instance, in the case of the Internet, the greater the number of Internet users, the greater the possibility of providing various online services but energy to promote production in rural areas would not necessarily lead to an increase in the rate of return to enterprises in the absence of other investments, such as roads or telecommunications.</li>
</ol>
<h3>The Role of Planning in Infrastructure Development</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Rapid economic transformation is unlikely to occur spontaneously, and throughout the twentieth century if successful countries had not relied on planning to &ldquo;initiate, spur, and steer economic development&rdquo;.</li>
<li>Planning involves a wide range of choices, from what sectors to prioritize and technologies to adopt, to the degree of macro coordination of investment decisions, to the amount of resources required and how to mobilize them.</li>
<li>The design and execution of an infrastructure plan should take into account a country&rsquo;s stage of development, existing infrastructure, industrial capabilities and expansion plans, urban versus rural divides, levels of policy ambition, existing infrastructure institutions and their coordination, availability of new financial, technical or other resources and the existence of political and managerial capacity for effective implementation.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Experiences with National Development Plans: Country Evidence</h3>
<p>Since the early 2000s, many developing countries have started to prepare and publish national development plans. These initiatives do not necessarily imply that countries rigorously stick to each of their provisions, but rather indicate a vision which countries may want to pursue in terms of their national trajectories.</p>
<h2>Conclusion</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Managing structural transformation is a big challenge at all levels of development. In part, that is because the mixture of creative and destructive forces accompanying such a transformation do not automatically translate into a virtuous growth circle.</li>
<li>This chapter has argued that structural transformation will also need to be accompanied by infrastructure planning. However, even as the funding for infrastructure has begun to recover after decades of decline, serious discussion of what is needed to effectively embed infrastructure programmes in a development strategy has not followed.</li>
<li>Indeed, even when infrastructure has been included in national plans, there does not appear to be any clear framework for moving from ambition to implementation. This disconnect is in part the result of a singular ideological drive to limit the infrastructure challenge to a matter of project bankability, leaving it solely in the hands of finance ministries.</li>
<li>But it also reflects a reluctance on the part of governments in developing countries to think about the challenge in a more comprehensive and integrated manner and to invest in the techniques, skills and institutional capacities required to ensure that infrastructure will not just build bridges but ensure those bridges deliver on the ambitions of the 2030 Agenda.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Way Forward</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Going forward, the trading system will have to tackle three fundamental challenges:</li>
<li>First, in developed countries, the domestic support for globalization needs to be sustained in the face of economic weakness and the reduced ability to maintain social insurance mechanisms.</li>
<li>Second, China has become the world&rsquo;s largest trader and a major beneficiary of the current rules of the game. It will be called upon to shoulder more of the responsibilities of maintaining an open system.</li>
<li>The third challenge will be to prevent the rise of mega-regionalism from leading to discrimination and becoming a source of trade conflicts.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Hyperglobalization </strong></p>
<p>Since the early 1990s, the world has entered into an era of what might be called hyperglobalization. The years between 1870 and 1914 have been described as the first golden age of globalization. World trade as a share of GDP surged from 9 percent in 1870 to 16 percent on the eve of World War I. This was the era that John Maynard Keynes waxed eloquently about, noting that an inhabitant of London &ldquo;could order by telephone, sipping his morning tea in bed, the various products of the whole earth, in such quantity as he might see fit, and reasonably expect their early delivery upon his doorstep&rdquo; (Keynes 1920, 11). The period between 1914 and the end of World War II witnessed the great reversal of globalization, as the combustible mix of isolationism, nationalism, and militarism ignited protectionist policies. World trade plunged to a low of 5.5 percent of world GDP just before World War II began (O&rsquo;Rourke and Williamson 1999, Frieden 2006, and Irwin 2011). A third era, starting after World War II, saw the restoration of world trade, aided by declines in transportation costs and trade barriers. Only by about the mid- to late-1970s did world trade revert to the peaks seen before World War I. The world is now in a fourth era&mdash;of hyperglobalization&mdash;in which world trade has soared much more rapidly than world GDP. Merchandise exports-to-GDP ratios soared from 15 percent to 26 percent, and goods and services exports to about 33 percent over the course of the last two decades. This rapid increase is somewhat surprising, because transportation costs do not appear to have declined as rapidly as in earlier eras (Hummels, Ishii, and Yi 2001 and Baldwin 2011a). The cost of information and communications did decline significantly, however. Part of the increase in trade reflects the fragmentation of manufacturing across borders&mdash;the famous slicing up of the value-added chain&mdash;as individual production stages are located where the costs of production are lowest. This phenomenon, whereby technology no longer requires that successive stages of manufacturing production be physically contiguous or proximate, has been dubbed the &ldquo;second unbundling&rdquo; (Baldwin 2011a).</p>
</div>',
			'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
			'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/summary-of-important-reports/trade-and-development-report-2018-power-platforms-and-the-free-trade-delusion'
		],
		(int) 8 => [
			'title' => 'In Depth - International Court of Justice',
			'catname' => 'Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha Discussions',
			'desc' => '<p style="text-align: center;"><iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/SUXP6FKvqLA" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe></p>
<p style="text-align: left;">ICJ recently concluded the four-day public hearing on Kulbhushan Jadhav case. India has urged the ICJ to annul Jadhav&rsquo;s death sentence given by a Pakistan military court. On the other hand, Pakistan continued to claim that Jadhav is an instrument of India&rsquo;s official policy of Terror.</p>
<h3>ICJ</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>ICJ is a principal judicial organization of United Nations(UN).</li>
<li>It settles legal disputes between member countries and gives advisory opinions to authorized UN Organs and Specialized Agencies.</li>
<li>It is seated in the Peace Palace of Hague, Netherlands.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Establishment</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It was established in 1945 by a UN Charter and began working in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice.</li>
<li>The Statute of the International Court of Justice is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the conduct of the court.</li>
<li>Chapter XIV of the United Nations Charter authorizes the UN Security Council to enforce Court rulings. However, such enforcement is subject to the veto power of the five permanent members(France, U.K, China, U.S, Russia) of the Council.</li>
<li>Every country which is/becomes a member of the UN also is/becomes a member of ICJ i.e. comes within its jurisdiction.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Election Process</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The election process for the judges is set out in Articles 4&ndash;19 of the ICJ statute.</li>
<li>It is composed of 15 judges who are elected for the term of nine years, by the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council. The elected judges form part of the list of people nominated by the national groups in the Permanent Court of Arbitration.</li>
<li>Elections are staggered, with five judges elected every three years to ensure continuity within the court. If a judge dies in office, the practice has generally been to elect a judge in a special election to complete the term.</li>
<li>A judge can be dismissed only by a unanimous vote of the other members of the court.</li>
<li>No two judges can be nationals of the same country. The judges in ICJ are chosen to represent all geographic regions of the world- an informal understanding between the nations.</li>
<li>There are five seats for Western Countries, three seats for the African States, two for the Eastern Europe States, three for the Asian States and two for Latin American and Caribbean States.</li>
<li>Article 6 of the Statute provides that all judges should be elected regardless of their nationality. Judges should be of high moral character either qualified for the highest judicial office in their home states or known as lawyers with sufficient competence in international law.</li>
<li>Judges of ICJ cannot hold any other post or act as counsel.</li>
<li>Article 31 of the statute sets out a procedure whereby Ad Hoc judges sit on contentious cases before the court. The system allows any party to a contentious case to select one additional person to sit as a judge on that case only. It is thus possible that as many as seventeen judges may sit on one case. Ad Hoc judges usually vote in <g class="gr_ gr_132 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling multiReplace" id="132" data-gr-id="132">favour</g> of the state that appointed them and thus cancels each other out.</li>
<li>Judges may deliver joint judgments or give their own separate opinions. Decisions and advisory opinions are by majority, and, in the event of an equal division, the President's vote becomes decisive.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Jurisdiction</h3>
<p>ICJ acts as a World Court and is the principal legal organ body of the UN. The court&rsquo;s jurisdiction is two-fold:</p>
<p>Contentious Cases</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>ICJ, in accordance with International Law, settles the disputes of legal nature that are submitted to it by states.</li>
<li>Only states may apply to and appear before the ICJ. International Organizations, other authorities, and private individuals are not entitled to institute proceedings before the court.</li>
<li>Article 35 defines the conditions under which States may access the Court. It states that court is open to the state parties to the Statute, and is intended to regulate access to the Court by the states which are not parties to the Statute.</li>
<li>The Court can only deal with a dispute when the States concerned have recognized its jurisdiction.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Advisory Opinions</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Advisory Procedure is available to five UN Organs, fifteen Specialized Agencies, and one Related Organization.</li>
<li>Advisory Proceedings begin with the filing of a written request for an advisory opinion addressed to the Registrar by the UN Secretary-General or the Director or Secretary General of the Entity requesting the opinion.</li>
<li>In urgent cases, the Court may take all appropriate measures to speed up the proceedings. It is even empowered to hold written and oral proceedings.</li>
<li>Despite having no-binding force, the Court&rsquo;s advisory opinions nevertheless, carry great legal weight and moral authority and thus help in the development and clarification of International Laws.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p>India at ICJ</p>
<p>India has remained involved in cases at ICJ on six occasions, including the present Jadhav case. Pakistan was the opposing party in the four out of six cases.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In 1955, Portugal claimed the right of passage through the territory of India to ensure communications between its territory of Daman and its enclaved territories of Dadra and Nagar-Haveli.</li>
<li>India contended that the events that took place in Dadra on 21st &amp; 22nd July 1954 overthrew Portuguese authority in these enclaves creating tension in the surrounding Indian Territory.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Verdict: The ICJ did not find fault with India and ruled that India has not acted contrary to its obligations.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>In 1971, India said that the Council of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) had no jurisdiction on a complaint filed by Pakistan.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Verdict: ICJ held that ICAO is indeed competent to entertain the complaint made to it by Pakistan.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>In 1973, Pakistan sought proceedings against India on the charges of genocide against 195 Pakistani nationals, prisoners of war or civilian internees in the Indian custody.</li>
<li>The case ended after both India and Pakistan governments held discussions and came to an agreement on the issue.</li>
<li>In 1999, Pakistan entered into a dispute on the destruction of a Pakistani aircraft by India in 1999. Pakistan said that the ICJ had jurisdiction in this issue.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Verdict: ICJ concluded that it had no jurisdiction to entertain the application filed by Pakistan.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>In 2014, The Republic of the Marshall Islands instituted proceedings against all nuclear weapon states, including India, contending breach of customary law obligations on nuclear disarmament.</li>
<li>India said that the ICJ had no jurisdiction in the case.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Verdict: ICJ accepted that it cannot proceed to the merits of the case because of lack of jurisdiction.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>In 2017, India filed a case on illegal detention of former Indian Navy Officer Kulbhushan Jadhav by Pakistan. The case is in progress at ICJ.</li>
</ul>
</div>',
			'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
			'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/loksabha-rajyasabha-discussions/in-depth-international-court-of-justice'
		],
		(int) 9 => [
			'title' => 'UK Asked to Return Chagos Islands to Mauritius',
			'catname' => 'News Analysis',
			'desc' => '<p><strong>International Court of Justice (ICJ)</strong> has asked the United Kingdom to return the Chagos Archipelago back to Mauritius.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>ICJ has said that continued British occupation of the Chagos archipelago is illegal.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Court&rsquo;s Advisory Opinion</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>ICJ in its advisory opinion has said that:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The process of decolonization of Mauritius was not complete when the country was <strong>given independence in 1968</strong> as the Chagos Archipelago was separated.</li>
<li>The UK should <strong>give up its administrative control</strong> over the Chagos Archipelago as rapidly as possible.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Background</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The case was referred to the ICJ, which hears legal submissions over international boundary disputes, after an overwhelming vote in 2017 in the UN general assembly.</li>
<li>In its submission to the ICJ last year, Mauritius argued it was<strong> coerced into giving up the Chagos Islands.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>That separation was in breach of<strong> UN resolution 1514, passed in 1960,</strong> which specifically banned the breakup of colonies before independence.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The UK government argued that the court did not have jurisdiction to hear the case.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Likely Impact</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>The United Kingdom:</strong> Although the decision by the ICJ is<strong> only advisory,</strong> the judgment is a blow to the UK&rsquo;s prestige on the world stage.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The UN general assembly vote in 2017, revealed the waning UK&rsquo;s international influence as many European Countries countries did not support the UK and traditional allies such as Canada abstaining.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Mauritius:</strong> The government of Mauritius has welcomed the decision and said that is is a &ldquo;historic moment in efforts to bring colonialism to an end, and to promote human rights, self-determination and the international rule of law&rdquo;.</li>
<li><strong>On US Military Base:</strong> The <strong>opinion is unlikely to impact the U.S. military</strong> base as Mauritius has said in the UN General Assembly that it is committed to the continued operation of the base in<strong> Diego Garcia under a long-term framework.</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>Chagos Archipelago<a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1577427475_image35.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1577427475_image35.jpg" width="500" caption="false" style="float: right;" /></a></h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Chagos Archipelago, island group in the central Indian Ocean, located about 1,000 miles (1,600 km) south of the <strong>southern tip of the Indian subcontinent.</strong></li>
<li>In the 19<sup>th</sup> century, Chagos were<strong> governed from Mauritius,</strong> which was a<strong> British Colony.</strong></li>
<li>The UK retained possession of the Chagos archipelago, which includes the strategic US airbase of Diego Garcia, after Mauritius gained its independence in 1968, by<strong> paying Mauritius more than &pound;4m for the islands.</strong></li>
<li>The U.K. government refers to it as <strong>British Indian Ocean Territory or BIOT.</strong></li>
<li>About 1,500 native islanders were deported from the Diego Garcia island in Chagos archipelago so that it could be leased to <strong>the US for the airbase in 1971.</strong></li>
<li>Mauritius claimed that it was forced to give up the islands in 1965 in exchange for independence, which it gained in 1968.</li>
</ul>
<h3>India&rsquo;s Stand</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India has <strong>supported Mauritius stand</strong> on the Chagos Archipelago.</li>
<li>India in its submission to ICJ has said that the Chagos Archipelago has been and continues to be with Mauritius and demanded <strong>sovereignty over the Chagos Archipelago from Britain.</strong></li>
<li>India stayed committed to its <strong>Indian Ocean neighbor Mauritius, as well as its anti-colonial credentials.</strong></li>
</ul>',
			'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
			'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/uk-asked-to-return-chagos-islands-to-mauritius'
		],
		(int) 10 => [
			'title' => 'Important Fact For Prelims (26th February 2019)',
			'catname' => 'News Analysis',
			'desc' => '<h3>Global Digital Health Partnership Summit</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Union Minister of Health and Family Welfare</strong> has inaugurated the <strong>&lsquo;4<sup>th</sup> Global Digital Health Partnership Summit&rsquo;</strong> in New Delhi.</li>
<li>The global intergovernmental meeting on digital health is being hosted by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare in collaboration with <strong>World Health Organization (WHO)</strong> and the<strong> Global Digital Health Partnership (GDHP).</strong></li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Global Digital Health Partnership</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Global Digital Health Partnership (GDHP) is an international collaboration of governments, government agencies and multinational organisations dedicated to improving the health and well-being of their citizens through the best use of evidence-based digital technologies.</li>
<li>It was<strong> established in February 2018,</strong> to provide an opportunity for transformational engagement between its participants.</li>
<li><strong>Australia</strong> was the host country for the <strong>inaugural summit in 2018.</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>Rail Drishti Dashboard</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The government has launched <strong>Rail Drishti dashboard</strong>, encompassing all the digitisation efforts in Indian Railways and promoting transparency and accountability.</li>
<li>The<strong> dashboard (raildrishti.cris.org.in)</strong> brings information from various sources on a single platform and gives access to key statistics and parameters to every citizen of the country.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It contains information related to passenger and freight trains and links to live feeds of IRCTC kitchens.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The available information has been categorized <strong>under 15 sections on the Dashboard.</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>Stratocumulus Clouds</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A recent study has warned that i<strong>ncreasing Carbon Dioxide levels</strong> can warm the Earth dramatically and can lead to<a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/earth-at-risk-of-becoming-hothouse" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong> hothouse conditions.</strong></a></li>
<li>The <strong>Stratocumulus clouds</strong> that reflects sunlight back into space could break up and vanish if<strong> CO<sub>2</sub> in the atmosphere triples.</strong></li>
<li>Stratocumulus clouds cover about<strong> 20% of subtropical oceans</strong> and when they disappear, Earth warms dramatically, by about eight degrees. This is in addition to the global warming that comes from enhanced greenhouse concentrations alone.</li>
<li>A temperature increase of that magnitude would melt polar ice and lift sea levels dozens of meters.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Types of Clouds</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>According to their <strong>height, expanse, density and transparency or opaqueness clouds</strong> are grouped under four types:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Cirrus:</strong> Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes (8,000 - 12,000m). They are thin and detached clouds having a feathery appearance. They are always white in colour.</li>
<li><strong>Cumulus:</strong> Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool. They are formed at a height of 4,000 - 7,000 m. They exist in patches and can be seen scattered here and there. They have a flat base.</li>
<li><strong>Stratus:</strong> These are layered clouds covering large portions of the sky. These clouds are generally formed either due to loss of heat or due to the mixing of air masses with different temperatures.</li>
<li><strong>Nimbus:</strong> Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray. They form at middle levels or very near to the surface of the earth. These are extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the sun.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>A combination of these four basic types can give rise to the following types of clouds:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>High clouds</strong> &ndash; cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus;</li>
<li><strong>Middle clouds</strong> &ndash; altostratus and altocumulus;</li>
<li><strong>Low clouds</strong> &ndash; stratocumulus and nimbostratus and clouds with extensive vertical development &ndash; cumulus and cumulonimbus.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>National War Memorial</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Recently, Prime Minister has inaugurated <strong>National War Memorial in New Delhi.</strong></li>
<li>The memorial is located at the<strong> India Gate complex in New Delhi.</strong></li>
<li>The layout of the structure comprises four concentric circles, named:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>the<strong> "Amar Chakra"</strong> or Circle of Immortality,</li>
<li>the<strong> "Veerta Chakra"</strong> or Circle of Bravery,</li>
<li>the <strong>"Tyag Chakra"</strong> or Circle of Sacrifice and</li>
<li>the<strong> "Rakshak Chakra"</strong> or Circle of Protection.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The busts of <strong>21 awardees of the Param Veer Chakra</strong> are also installed at the Param Yoddha Sthal.</li>
<li>The <strong>National War Memorial also commemorates the soldiers</strong> who participated and made supreme sacrifices in <strong>United Nations peace-keeping missions, Humanitarian Assistance Disaster Relief (HADR) operations, counterinsurgency operations and Low-Intensity Conflict Operations (LICO).</strong></li>
<li>Since Independence, more than <strong>25,000 personnel have been martyred during the India-China War in 1962, the Indo-Pakistan wars in 1947, 1965 and 1971, the Indian Peace Keeping Force operations in Sri Lanka and the conflict in Kargil in 1999.</strong></li>
<li>The <strong>proposal</strong> for a National War Memorial was first <strong>made in the 1960s.</strong></li>
<li>In 2015, the cabinet gave in-principle approval for war memorial construction at India Gate Complex, New Delhi.</li>
<li>In 2016, after an international competition to design of the Memorial,<strong> Chennai-based architecture company WeBe Design Lab</strong> was selected.</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1577427700_image50.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1577427700_image50.jpg" width="500" caption="false" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></a></p>',
			'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
			'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/important-fact-for-prelims-26th-february-2019'
		],
		(int) 11 => [
			'title' => 'Migration and Remittances: The Gender Angle',
			'catname' => 'News Editorials',
			'desc' => '<div class="border">
<p>(The editorial is based on the article &ldquo;Migration and remittances: The gender angle&rdquo; which appeared in BusinessLine for 26th February 2019. In this article, we will discuss the gender distribution of cross-border migration.)</p>
</div>
<p>The gender distribution of cross-border migration is a matter of importance because women migrating for work face very different conditions from those of men migrants, whether in the source country or in the process of travel or in the destination country.</p>
<p>These are crucially affected by gender construction as well as the nature of labor markets in both societies of origin and destination.</p>
<p>However, the impact of such gendered migration has remained much less apparent and less analyzed. Specifically, the impact of gendered migration on the sending of remittances is an issue that is often ignored, even though it can be very significant. Women migrating for work have been known to send a greater proportion of their earnings back as remittances and to send more regularly than men as their nature of work significantly differs from those of men&rsquo;s.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Men migrant workers are mostly to be found in manufacturing and construction activitie</strong>s in the host countries. <strong>Women migrants, by contrast, are overwhelmingly in service work, particularly in care activities</strong>.</li>
<li>This has direct implications for earnings and therefore for the ability (apart from the willingness) to send remittances back to migrants&rsquo; homes.</li>
<li><strong>Male migrant workers are much more immediately affected by business cycles in the host economies</strong>, tending to lose jobs or experience reduced incomes, which thereby affects the remittances they can send.</li>
<li><strong>Women working in services activities, by contrast, especially those in care services such as nurses or domestic workers, are less likely to be immediately</strong> affected by the business cycle as these activities are not the first to be curtailed. Therefore, their incomes and ability to send remittances are less affected.</li>
<li><strong>This means that countries that send more women migrant workers out are likely to show a more stable pattern of remittance inflow than countries with dominantly male out-migrants.</strong> This is clearly evident in migration out of Asian countries.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Global Stats</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Women have been significant in cross-border migration in several Asian countries</strong> &mdash; Sri Lanka, the Philippines and India have shown high ratios of female migrants, followed by Pakistan and Vietnam. In all these countries, remittances form a significant proportion of GDP.</li>
<li><strong>However, Bangladesh showed a very low ratio.</strong> Bangladesh has had very strict laws on women&rsquo;s external mobility (which require the permission of the male head of household) and has restricted women&rsquo;s migration. Remittance inflows have been much more volatile and have even fallen in several years, as the predominantly male migrant workers have been affected by fluctuating economic conditions in the major host countries (the Middle East and the US).</li>
<li><strong>The most interesting contrast in remittance inflows is between Sri Lanka and the Philippines, on one hand, and Bangladesh on the other.</strong> Between 1980 and 2013, women dominated out-migration from the Philippines, accounting for 60% of such migrants. Their share peaked in 2004 at around three-fourths of the outflow of workers abroad, and most of them were employed as domestic workers in the destination countries.</li>
<li>Thereafter, attempts by the Philippine government to regulate their conditions of work and reduce exploitative practices led to a reduction in the number of such women migrants, whose share shrank to less than half in 2007 and 2008. A revival thereafter led to previous levels being surpassed in 2010. Correspondingly, remittance inflows also increased continuously, despite some slowdown in the late 2000s.</li>
<li><strong>For Pakistan, less of the female migration has been for work and more for reasons of marriage &mdash;</strong> and this has affected the volatility of remittances as well. In Vietnam, the growing significance of women migrants has been reflected in a smoother trend increase in recent years compared to the past.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Opportunities</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Migration can be empowering</strong> for women.</li>
<li>The <strong>introduction to more equitable societal norms can improve women&rsquo;s rights</strong>, autonomy, and access to resources.</li>
<li>When migrant women return home, they often maintain their newfound autonomy, as well as<strong> bring home new norms, skills, and expertise.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Family health and children&rsquo;s education may improve</strong> as a result of migration.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Concerns</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Migration and transnational parenting can put a strain on families.</strong> Migration can have positive effects on the family and household, but the change in parenting and separation can be difficult, even with increased access to telecommunications and the Internet. Research is mixed on the effects of migration on children.</li>
<li><strong>When high‐skilled migrants leave, the results can be negative for the communities of origin, referred to as &ldquo;brain drain.&rdquo;</strong></li>
<li>Many women employed in low paid sectors may not be in a position to save money to invest in their return. They may not even have an adequate pension, leaving them with no choice but to migrate again in old age.</li>
<li><strong>High‐skilled migrant women are often underemployed</strong> and work in positions below their qualifications.</li>
<li>Female migrants may be forced into prostitution or to sell sexual favors to survive or provide for their families.</li>
<li><strong>Migrant women, especially irregular migrants, may be more vulnerable to violence.</strong></li>
<li>Domestic work is generally not covered by employment laws.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Indian Scene</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>The Indian case presents a more complex picture.</strong> Women workers have been around half of the recorded migrants, yet remittances display a more volatile pattern. This relates to the specific nature of the origin of remittances, which is in turn determined by the destination of migrants as well as by gender.</li>
<li>In 2013, 52% of the stock of Indian migrants abroad were in just two countries in the Middle East: Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. Just under a quarter were in the United States.</li>
<li>This excludes the Indians living in the US on temporary visas like H1B visas, who are more likely to send remittances than permanent migrants; indeed, remittances from the US have accounted for around half of the total remittances over the past decade.</li>
<li>But such remittance flows emanating from temporary but high-skilled workers tend to be larger than the smaller amounts sent by women workers in less skilled care activities in the Middle East.</li>
<li>Therefore, while the women migrants mostly continue to send remittances in periods of down-swing, male professional workers on short-term visas are more directly affected by adverse economic conditions.</li>
<li><strong>So in this matter (and in so much else in the matter of employment patterns), the Indian experience tends to be somewhat of an outlier with regard to the relationship between gendered migration and remittances.</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>Way Forward</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>There is a need to ensure migrant women are granted full human rights</strong> and can access services and resources for basic rights.</li>
<li><strong>Provide access to financial institutions and better channels</strong> for sending and receiving remittances.</li>
<li><strong>The rights of migrant women should be legally protected and they should have access to legal services</strong> and remedies and also for health services.</li>
<li><strong>There is a need to promote nondiscrimination in access to labor markets and job sectors,</strong> thereby increasing access and opportunities for women</li>
<li>The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development recognizes for the first time the contribution of migration to sustainable development. Now, the Governments across the globe should create bilateral, multilateral, and regional dialogue and agreements that include provisions for sharing information and best practices to ensure migrant rights, support, and protection.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>The International Organization for Migration (IOM)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Established in 1951, IOM is the leading inter-governmental organization in the field of migration.</li>
<li>IOM works to help ensure the orderly and humane management of migration for the benefit of all, to promote international cooperation on migration issues, to assist in the search for practical solutions to migration problems and to provide humanitarian assistance to migrants in need, including refugees and internally displaced people.</li>
<li>UN member states adopted a set of commitments, known as the New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants, recognizing the need for a comprehensive approach to migration.</li>
<li>The New York Declaration acknowledges the positive contribution of migrants to sustainable and inclusive development, and commits to protecting the safety, dignity and human rights and fundamental freedoms of all migrants, regardless of their migratory status.</li>
</ul>
</div>',
			'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
			'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-editorials/migration-and-remittances-the-gender-angle'
		],
		(int) 12 => [
			'title' => 'Lokpal and Lokayukta',
			'catname' => 'National Institutions',
			'desc' => '<h3>What are Lokpal and Lokayukta?</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The <strong>Lokpal and Lokayukta Act, 2013</strong> provided for the establishment of Lokpal for the Union and Lokayukta for States.</li>
<li>These institutions are <strong>statutory bodies</strong> without any constitutional status.</li>
<li>They perform the function of an "ombudsman&rdquo; and inquire into allegations of corruption against certain public functionaries and for related matters.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Why do we need such institutions?</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Maladministration is like a termite which slowly erodes the foundation of a nation and hinders administration from completing its task. Corruption is the root cause of this problem.</li>
<li>Most of the anti-corruption agencies are hardly independent. Even Supreme Court has been termed CBI as a &ldquo;caged parrot&rdquo; and &ldquo;its master&rsquo;s voice&rdquo;.</li>
<li>Many of these agencies are advisory bodies without any effective powers and their advice is rarely followed.</li>
<li>There is also the problem of internal transparency and accountability. Moreover, there is not any separate and effective mechanism to put checks on these agencies.</li>
<li>In this context, an independent institution of Lokpal has been a landmark move in the history of Indian polity which offered a solution to the never-ending menace of corruption.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Background</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In 1809, the institution of ombudsman was <strong>inaugurated officially in Sweden</strong>.</li>
<li>In the 20th century, Ombudsman as an institution developed and grew most significantly after the Second World War.</li>
<li><strong>New Zealand and Norway adopted this system in the year 1962</strong> and it proved to be of great significance in spreading the concept of the ombudsman.</li>
<li>In 1967, on the recommendations of the <strong>Whyatt Report of 1961, Great Britain adopted the institution of the ombudsman</strong> and became the first large nation in the democratic world to have such a system.</li>
<li>In 1966, Guyana became the first developing nation to adopt the concept of the ombudsman. Subsequently, it was further adopted by Mauritius, Singapore, Malaysia, and India as well.</li>
<li>In India, the concept of constitutional ombudsman was <strong>first proposed by the then law minister Ashok Kumar Sen in parliament in the early 1960s.</strong></li>
<li>The term Lokpal and Lokayukta were <strong>coined by Dr. L. M. Singhvi.</strong></li>
<li><strong>In 1966, the First Administrative Reforms Commission recommended the setting up of two independent authorities-</strong> at the central and state level, to look into complaints against public functionaries, including MPs.</li>
<li>In 1968, Lokpal bill was passed in Lok Sabha but lapsed with the dissolution of Lok Sabha and since then it has lapsed in the Lok Sabha many times.</li>
<li>Till 2011 eight attempts were made to pass the Bill, but all met with failure.</li>
<li>In 2002, the Commission to <strong>Review the Working of the Constitution headed by M.N. Venkatachaliah recommended the appointment of the Lokpal and Lokayuktas</strong>; also recommended that the PM <g class="gr_ gr_204 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear Grammar multiReplace" id="204" data-gr-id="204">be</g> kept out of the ambit of the authority.</li>
<li>In 2005, the <strong>Second Administrative Reforms Commission chaired by Veerappa Moily</strong> recommended that the office of Lokpal should be established without delay.</li>
<li>In 2011, the government formed a Group of Ministers, chaired by Pranab Mukherjee to suggest measures to tackle corruption and examine the proposal of a Lokpal Bill.</li>
<li>"India Against Corruption movement" led by Anna Hazare put pressure on the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government at the Centre and resulted in the passing of the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Bill, 2013, in both the Houses of Parliament.</li>
<li>It received assent from President on 1 January 2014 and came into force on 16 January 2014.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>The Lokpal and Lokayuktas (Amendment) Bill, 2016</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>This Bill was passed by Parliament in July 2016 and amended the Lokpal and Lokayukta Act, 2013.</li>
<li>It <strong>enables the leader of the single largest opposition party in the Lok Sabha to be a member of the selection committee</strong> in the absence of a recognized Leader of Opposition.</li>
<li>It also amended section 44 of the 2013 Act that deals with the provision of furnishing of details of assets and liabilities of public servants within 30 days of joining the government service.</li>
<li>The Bill replaces the time limit of 30 days, now the public servants will make a declaration of their assets and liabilities in the form and manner as prescribed by the government.</li>
<li>It also gives an extension of the time given to trustees and board members to declare their assets and those of their spouses in case of these are receiving government funds of more than Rs. 1 crore or foreign funding of more than Rs. 10 lakh.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Structure of Lokpal</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Lokpal is a multi-member body, that consists of one chairperson and a maximum of 8 members.</li>
<li>Chairperson of the Lokpal should be either the former Chief Justice of India or the former Judge of Supreme Court or an eminent person with impeccable integrity and outstanding ability, having special knowledge and expertise of minimum 25 years in the matters relating to anti-corruption policy, public administration, vigilance, finance including insurance and banking, law and management.</li>
<li>Out of the maximum eight members, half will be judicial members and minimum 50% of the Members will be from SC/ ST/ OBC/ Minorities and women.</li>
<li>The judicial member of the Lokpal either a former Judge of the Supreme Court or a former Chief Justice of a High Court.</li>
<li>The non-judicial member should be an eminent person with impeccable integrity and outstanding ability, having special knowledge and expertise of minimum 25 years in the matters relating to anti-corruption policy, public administration, vigilance, finance including insurance and banking, law and management.</li>
<li>The <strong>term of office for Lokpal Chairman and Members is 5 years or till the age of 70 years.</strong></li>
<li>The <strong>members are appointed by the president</strong> on the recommendation of a Selection Committee.</li>
<li>The selection committee is composed of the Prime Minister who is the Chairperson; Speaker of Lok Sabha, Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha,&nbsp; Chief Justice of India or a Judge nominated by him/her and One eminent jurist.</li>
<li>For selecting the chairperson and the members, the selection committee constitutes a search panel of at least eight persons.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Lokpal Search Committee</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Under the Lokpal Act of 2013, the DoPT is supposed to put together a list of candidates interested to be the chairperson or members of the Lokpal.</li>
<li>This list would then go to the proposed eight-member search committee, which would shortlist names and place them before the selection panel headed by the Prime Minister.</li>
<li>The selection panel may or may not pick names suggested by the search committee.</li>
<li>In September 2018, the <a href="https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/supreme-court-sets-deadline-for-lokpal-appointment&amp;sa=D&amp;ust=1551173236003000&amp;usg=AFQjCNF9P_-MmlBUbr2aZEja5SBfhCVCQQ" target="_blank" rel="noopener">government had constituted a search committee headed by former Supreme Court judge Justice Ranjana Prakash Desai.</a></li>
<li>The 2013 Act also provides that all states should set up the office of the Lokayukta within one year from the commencement of the Act.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Lokpal Jurisdiction and Powers</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Jurisdiction of Lokpal <strong>includes Prime Minister, Ministers, members of Parliament, Groups A, B, C and D officers and officials of Central Government.</strong></li>
<li>Jurisdiction of the Lokpal included the Prime Minister except on allegations of corruption relating to international relations, security, the public order, atomic energy <g class="gr_ gr_183 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear Punctuation only-ins replaceWithoutSep" id="183" data-gr-id="183">and</g> space.</li>
<li>The Lokpal does not have jurisdiction over Ministers and MPs in the matter of anything said in Parliament or a vote given there.</li>
<li>Its jurisdiction also includes any person who is or has been in charge (director/ manager/ secretary) of anybody/ society set up by central act or any other body financed/ controlled by central government and any other person involved in act of abetting, bribe giving or <g class="gr_ gr_186 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear ContextualSpelling ins-del multiReplace" id="186" data-gr-id="186">bribe taking</g>.</li>
<li>The Lokpal Act mandates that all public officials should furnish the assets and liabilities of themselves as well as their respective dependents.</li>
<li>It <strong>has the powers to superintendence over, and to give direction to CBI.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>If Lokpal has referred a case to CBI, the investigating officer in such case cannot be transferred without the approval of Lokpal.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The Inquiry Wing of the Lokpal has been <strong>vested with the powers of a civil court.</strong></li>
<li>Lokpal has <strong>powers of confiscation of assets, proceeds, receipts <g class="gr_ gr_181 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear Punctuation only-ins replaceWithoutSep" id="181" data-gr-id="181">and</g> benefits arisen or procured by means of corruption</strong> in special circumstances.</li>
<li>Lokpal has the <strong>power to recommend transfer or suspension of public servant</strong> connected with allegation of corruption.</li>
<li>Lokpal has the<strong> power to give directions to prevent the destruction of records</strong> during the preliminary inquiry.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Limitations</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The institution of <g class="gr_ gr_187 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear ContextualSpelling ins-del multiReplace" id="187" data-gr-id="187">lokpal</g> has tried to bring a <g class="gr_ gr_189 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear ContextualSpelling multiReplace" id="189" data-gr-id="189">much needed</g> change in the battle against corruption in the administrative structure of India but at the same time, there are loopholes and lacunae which need to be corrected.</li>
<li>Five years have passed since the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act 2013 was passed by parliament, but not a single Lokpal has been appointed till date indicating the<strong> lack of political will.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Lokpal act also called upon states to appoint a Lokayukta within a year of its coming to force. But only 16 states have established the Lokayukta.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Lokpal is <strong>not free from political influence</strong> as the appointing committee itself consist of members from political parties.</li>
<li>The appointment of Lokpal can be manipulated in a way as there is no criterion to decide who is an &lsquo;eminent jurist&rsquo; or &lsquo;a person of integrity.&rsquo;</li>
<li>The 2013 act<strong> did not provide concrete immunity to the <g class="gr_ gr_179 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear ContextualSpelling ins-del" id="179" data-gr-id="179">whistle blowers</g>.</strong> The provision for initiation of inquiry against the complainant if the accused is found innocent will only discourage people from complaining.</li>
<li>The biggest lacuna is the <strong>exclusion of judiciary from the ambit of the Lokpal.</strong></li>
<li>The Lokpal is <strong>not given any constitutional backing</strong> and there is no adequate provision for appeal against the Lokpal.</li>
<li>The specific details in relation to the appointment of Lokayukta have been left completely on the States.</li>
<li>To some extent, the need for functional independence of the CBI has been catered to by a change brought forth in the selection process of its Director, by this Act.</li>
<li>The complaint against corruption cannot be registered after a period of seven years from the date on which the <g class="gr_ gr_208 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear ContextualSpelling multiReplace" id="208" data-gr-id="208">offence</g> mentioned in such complaint is alleged to have been committed.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Suggestions</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In order to tackle the problem of corruption, the <strong>institution of the ombudsman should be strengthened</strong> both in terms of functional autonomy and availability of manpower.</li>
<li><strong>Greater transparency, more right to information and empowerment of citizens and citizen groups</strong> is required along with <g class="gr_ gr_185 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear Grammar only-del replaceWithoutSep" id="185" data-gr-id="185">a good</g> leadership that is willing to subject itself to public scrutiny.</li>
<li>Appointment of Lokpal in itself is not enough. The government should address the issues based on which people are demanding a Lokpal. Merely adding to the strength of investigative agencies will increase the size of the government but not necessarily improve governance. The slogan adopted by the government of &ldquo;less government and more governance&rdquo;, should be followed in letter and spirit.</li>
<li>Moreover, Lokpal and Lokayukta must be <g class="gr_ gr_163 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear Grammar multiReplace" id="163" data-gr-id="163">financially</g>, administratively and legally independent of those whom they are called upon to investigate and prosecute.</li>
<li>Lokpal and Lokayukta appointments must be done transparently so as to minimize the chances of the wrong sorts of people getting in.</li>
<li>There is a need for a multiplicity of decentralized institutions with appropriate accountability mechanisms, to avoid the concentration of too much power, in any one institution or authority.</li>
</ul>',
			'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
			'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/important-institutions/drishti-specials-important-institutions-national-institutions/lokpal-lokayukta-ombudsman-upsc-governance-transparency'
		],
		(int) 13 => [
			'title' => 'Cross-Border Terrorism',
			'catname' => 'Paper 3',
			'desc' => '<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/510Drishti_ias_Crossborder-Terrorism.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/510Drishti_ias_Crossborder-Terrorism.jpg" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></a></p>',
			'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
			'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/mind-map/gs-paper3/cross-border-terrorism-mindmap'
		],
		(int) 14 => [
			'title' => 'Important Fact For Prelims (25th February 2019)',
			'catname' => 'News Analysis',
			'desc' => '<h3>Chabahar Port<a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1577427236_image22.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1577427236_image22.jpg" width="550" caption="false" style="float: right;" /></a></h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Afghanistan, for the first time, has begun exports to India through <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/indian-firm-takes-over-chabahar-port-operations" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Iran&rsquo;s Chabahar port.</strong></a><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/993drishti_ias_Chabahar_Route.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>&nbsp;</strong></a></li>
<li>The delivery of the cargos will be carried out under the <strong>International Road Transports&rsquo; TIR (Transports Internationaux Routiers)</strong> convention.</li>
<li>The port is crucial for India&rsquo;s connectivity to Afghanistan apart from an air corridor that becomes operationalized in 2017.</li>
<li>For&nbsp;India, Chabahar provides <strong>access to Central Asia</strong> and<strong> International North-South Transport Corridor</strong> that connects Mumbai to Moscow.</li>
<li>The port is also<strong> important for landlocked Afghanistan</strong> which is keen to get connect itself with international markets.</li>
<li>The bilateral trade between India and Afghanistan jumped by 40% in 2018-19 and has crossed USD 1 billion, with imports from Afghanistan accounting or USD 740 Million.</li>
<li>Afghanistan has a huge trade surplus with India, the only country with which Afghanistan has a trade surplus.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Bandipur National Park<strong></strong></h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Recently,&nbsp;<strong>NASA&rsquo;s Fire Information for Resource Management System (NASA-FIRMS)</strong>&nbsp;has detected 32 fire incidents in Himavad Gopalaswamy Betta range of Bandipur National Park.</li>
<li>Bandipur National Park is located between where the <strong>Deccan Plateau meets the Western Ghats in Karnataka.</strong></li>
<li>It is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve with the adjoining Nagarhole National Park, Mudumalai National Park, and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary.</li>
<li>It has a variety of biomes including dry deciduous forests moist deciduous forests and shrublands.</li>
<li>The park is flanked by the Kabini river in the north and the Moyar river in the south. The Nugu river runs through the park.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>NASA's Fire Information for Resource Management System (FIRMS)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>NASA's Fire Information for Resource Management System (FIRMS) distributes Near-Real-Time (NRT) active fire data within 3 hours of satellite overpass from NASA's Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and NASA's Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS).</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN)</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Prime-minister launched <strong>PM-KISAN</strong> scheme from Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh.</li>
<li>Under PM-KISAN, vulnerable landholding farmer families, <strong>having cultivable land up-to 2 hectares,</strong> will be provided <strong>direct income support at the rate of Rs. 6,000 per year.</strong></li>
<li>This income support will be<strong> transferred directly into the bank accounts of beneficiary farmers</strong>, in three equal<strong> installments of Rs. 2,000 each.</strong></li>
<li>This programme is under the aegis of <strong>Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare</strong> and aims to <strong>address farm sector distress,</strong> caused by lower sales realization on bumper production of food-grains, oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton and horticulture crops.</li>
<li>State Government and UT Administration will identify the farmer families which are eligible for support as per scheme guidelines.</li>
<li>This programme will entail an <strong>annual expenditure of Rs.75,000 crore which will be funded by the Government of India.</strong> Around 12 crore small and marginal farmer families are expected to benefit from this.</li>
</ul>',
			'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
			'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/important-fact-for-prelims-25th-february-2019'
		],
		(int) 15 => [
			'title' => 'Wake up to Children’s Exposure to Pesticides',
			'catname' => 'News Editorials',
			'desc' => '<div class="border">
<p>(The editorial is based on the article &ldquo;Wake up to Children&rsquo;s Exposure to Pesticides&rdquo; which appeared in The Hindu for 25th February 2019. In this article, we will discuss the issues related to the early exposure of children to pesticides.)</p>
</div>
<p>Children need striving environment for growth.<strong> Now- a -days younger generation is falling sick frequently than the previous generation.</strong> The problem may become worse in the upcoming days. Doctors are of the opinion that since our children are growing up in heavily polluted cities, they are more prone to asthma and other infections.</p>
<p>Apart from above-mentioned reasons, there is another factor that young parents need to worry about &mdash; <strong>early exposure of children to pesticides.</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A recent study published in the PLOS Journal of Medicine establishes that <strong>prenatal exposure to organophosphates puts children at risk of reduced IQs, memory, attention deficits, and autism.</strong></li>
<li><strong>There is no evidence of a safe level of organophosphate pesticide exposure for children.</strong> Well before birth, organophosphate pesticides are disrupting the brain in its earliest stages, putting them on track for difficulties in learning, memory, and attention, effects which may not appear until they reach school-age.</li>
</ul>
<h3>What are Organophosphates (OP)?</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>T<strong>hese are a group of chemicals that were initially developed as human nerve agents during the 1930s and 1940s, to be used by the Nazis during the war</strong>. These were later adapted as insecticides.</li>
<li><strong>OPs are ubiquitous &mdash; a group of pesticides which is rampantly used in agriculture, gardens, pest control in homes and offices.</strong> Once OPs are sprayed on food crops, they find their way into the food chain. OPs have been detected in ghee, butter, honey, and soft drinks.</li>
<li>OPs have also been <strong>known to leach into water bodies close to agricultural fields</strong>. This varied exposure from different sources leads to bioaccumulation in our bodies.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Concerns</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In 2018, Scientists at the National Institute of Nutrition Hyderabad studied urine samples of children for the presence of OPs. They found that urine samples of Hyderabad children contained 10 to 40 times more OPs as compared to children in the US and Europe.</li>
<li><strong>Indian children are more prone to the risks of organophosphates exposure.</strong></li>
<li>Children are also more vulnerable because their bodies&rsquo; natural detoxification systems are immature and hence they are slower in eliminating pesticides from their bodies, compared to adults. <strong>The government has done very little here.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Close to 40 kinds of OPs are allowed in India.</strong> The Verma committee had suggested restricting/withdrawing some of these OPs.</li>
<li>However, not much progress has taken place since the committee submitted its report in 2015. Several thousand tonnes of pesticides, including OPs, are sprayed annually.</li>
<li><strong>Quite a few of these OPs like monocrotophos, malathion, and chlorpyrifos have been classified as highly to moderately hazardous by the WHO.</strong> Many of these are banned or their use severely restricted in several countries, including the US and those in the EU.</li>
<li><strong>Several studies have found that OPs are indiscriminately being used in India even on fruits and vegetables for which they have not been approved.</strong> The government has not just allowed these chemicals in the country but has not taken any steps to inform the public.</li>
<li><strong>Pest control in India is highly disorganized and least regulated; most times, the agencies are not even aware of the constituents in the concoction.</strong> This is beside millions of people including pregnant women working on farms and being continually exposed to these pesticides.</li>
<li><strong>In India, there is a scarcity of information on the magnitude of both intentional and unintentional poisoning, as well as on the relative importance of different pesticides.</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>Way Forward</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>The licenses to manufacture and sell pesticides were granted 40 years ago</strong>. Now we have plenty of new scientific data on the impact of these on children and adults &mdash; enough to revoke many of these licenses.</li>
<li><strong>The government needs to examine all licensed pesticides and their health impacts.</strong></li>
<li>There is a need to review and recommend improved pesticide regulatory policies. Implementing sustainable epidemiological surveillance and monitoring of pesticide poisoning in clinical settings and communities is the next step ahead.</li>
<li><strong>Improving the medical management and mental health care of people with pesticide poisoning in health</strong> care facilities at different levels is needed. Capacity building should be done at different sectors and levels along with the sensitization on the issue.</li>
<li>Community programmes that minimize the risks of intentional and unintentional pesticide poisoning should be developed or strengthened.</li>
<li><strong>Government officials, in their decision-making, need to promote the sustainable use of chemicals.</strong></li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>List of International Chemical Conventions</strong></p>
<p>There are many international chemical conventions restricting or even banning the production, use, and trade of certain hazardous chemicals for the purpose of protecting human health and the environment.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs):</strong> is an international treaty to protect human health and the environment from the harmful effects of POPs. The Convention was adopted on 22 May 2001 in Stockholm, Sweden and entered into force on 17 May 2004.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India&rsquo;s Union Cabinet gave its approval to ratify and accede to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants on 20 October 2005.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade:</strong> is an international treaty promoting shared responsibility between exporting and importing countries in protecting human health and the environment from certain banned or restricted hazardous chemicals and pesticides, and providing a mechanism for the exchange of information about potentially hazardous chemicals.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Convention was adopted on 10 September 1998 in Rotterdam, the Netherlands and entered into force on 24 February 2004.</li>
<li>India has ratified the Convention in 2005.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal:</strong> is an international treaty aiming to protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects of hazardous wastes. The convention was adopted on 22 March 1989 and entered into force on 5 May 1992. More than 180 states have become parties to the Convention.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India ratified the Convention on June 24, 1992.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)</strong> is an arms control treaty prohibiting the development, production, acquisition, stockpiling, retention, transfer or use of chemical weapons by States Parties. It is administered by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) and entered into force in 1997.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India is a signatory and party to the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC).</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>The Minamata Convention on Mercury</strong> is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from the adverse effects of mercury and its compounds. It was agreed at the fifth session of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee in Geneva, Switzerland 2013. More than 140 countries including India have ratified the Convention.</li>
<li><strong>The United Nations Convention</strong> against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances of 1988 entered into force on November 11, 1990. This Convention provides comprehensive measures against drug trafficking, including provisions against money laundering and the diversion of precursors chemicals.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India is one among the signatories.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>The Chemicals Convention</strong> concerning Safety in the use of Chemicals at Work was promulgated by the International Labor Organization (ILO) in 1990 and entered into force on 04 Nov 1993. The Convention protects workers from the harmful effects of chemicals in the workplace.</li>
<li><strong>The Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM)</strong> is a policy framework to promote chemical safety around the world. SAICM has as its overall objective the achievement of the sound management of chemicals throughout their life cycle so that, by 2020, chemicals are produced and used in ways that minimize significant adverse impacts on human health and the environment.</li>
</ul>
</div>',
			'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
			'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-editorials/wake-up-to-childrens-exposure-to-pesticides'
		],
		(int) 16 => [
			'title' => 'Cross-Border Terrorism',
			'catname' => 'Paper 3',
			'desc' => '<h3>Why in News?</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>On 14 February 2019, suicide bombing attack on a CRPF convoy in the Pulwama district of Jammu and Kashmir has killed 40 security personnel.</li>
<li>Pakistan based terrorist group Jaish-e-Mohammad has claimed the responsibility for the attack.</li>
<li>Cross-border terrorism remains a core concern for India. According to parliamentary report 323 infiltration bids have been made by terrorists from across the border in 2018.</li>
</ul>
<h3>What is Cross-Border Terrorism?</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The term &lsquo;cross-border&rsquo; implies a movement or an activity across a border between the two countries.</li>
<li>Cross-Border Terrorism is a form in which soil of one country is used to create terror in bordering countries.</li>
<li>As a grey zone conflict, it is an undeclared war and considered to be highest form of strategy to bleed a nation for prolonged period by small efforts.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>The Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It defines terrorist activity as one which intents to threaten the unity, integrity, security or sovereignty of India or strike terror in the minds of people.</li>
<li>It can either be created through explosive or lethal weapons or any other substance of hazardous nature to cause death of or injuries to any person and destruction of any property.</li>
<li>It is a systematic use of violence against civilians for intimidating a population or government for political, religious, or ideological goals.</li>
<li>Cross Border Terrorism includes unconventional tactics like cyber attacks, political warfare, perception war, sponsorship of armed proxy fighters etc.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Factors Facilitating Cross-Border Incursion</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Porous Border</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India's borders with most neighbours are porous (not protected) which are extremely easy to cross.</li>
<li>These borders cannot be physically wired due to complex geographical features such as mountains, deserts and other landforms.</li>
<li>This complexity makes these borders difficult to protect by security forces.</li>
<li>Moreover Border management in India has been characterised by security ambivalence and lack of strategic thinking.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Support from Non-State Actors</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India has a discordant political relationship with Pakistan which provide material support for secessionist militants in the border states of North-East and Jammu and Kashmir.</li>
<li>Pakistan facilitates movement of its proxies across the border with the only motive of creating terror in the minds of people of neighbouring states.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Internal Support</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Sometimes the local population support and facilitate cross border movement of terrorists by providing them conveyance and safe places to hide.</li>
<li>This could happen due to multitude of reasons such as identical ethnic affiliation, monetary requirements, fear of life, lack of education, dissatisfaction from present governance system etc.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Corrupt officials</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Sometimes officials in exchange of few thousand rupees allow unabated entry of illegal migrants whose identities and backgrounds are little known, these channels provide scope to criminal elements to cross over to mainland India.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Indian Border</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India has 15,106.7 kms of land border and a coastline of 7,516.6 kms including island territories.</li>
<li>Out of the total 29 states of India except for six states (Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Telangana, Delhi and Haryana), rest all states have either maritime boundary or land border with other nations.</li>
<li>India has land borders with countries: Pakistan, Afghanistan (PoK), China, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Bangladesh.</li>
<li>India has maritime borders with seven countries: Bangladesh, Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand, Sri Lanka and Maldives.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Cross-Border Terrorism in India</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>During last 15 years thousands of civilians have lost their lives in acts of terrorism, apart from thousands of defence, paramilitary and police personnel who have sacrificed their lives in the line of duty.</li>
<li>Infiltration and smuggling of narcotics, arms and weapons across the borders have been matters of constant and unmitigated anxiety to all concerned agencies manning the borders.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Indo-Pakistan Border</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Indo-Pakistan Border (3,323 Km) runs along the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab and J&amp;K. Direct accessibility of the borders and some technological developments enabling quick passage of information and transfer of funds has changed the focus and tenor of border security.</li>
<li>Cross-Border Terrorism from Pakistan has exacerbated due to non-recognition of boundaries by its terrorist groups and their success in acquiring legitimacy due to religious or ethnic identity.</li>
<li>Inadequate Cooperation from Pakistan has made the management of border further difficult for India.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Indo-Bangladesh Border</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Indo-Bangladesh Border (4,096 Km) passes through West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.</li>
<li>The entire stretch consists of plains, riverine belts, hills &amp; jungles which make illegal migration very easy.</li>
<li>Illegal Migration across this border poses serious security threats and acts as a fertile ground for organisations like the Inter Services Intelligence of Pakistan to penetrate and expand their activities.</li>
<li>Also, poor law and order situation at the border, has led to smuggling of arms and drugs. Supply of arms help in sustaining any conflict.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Indo-China Border</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India shares a long land border with China (3,488 Km) in the Indian states of Jammu &amp; Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.</li>
<li>Although this border remains relatively aloof from illegal migrations, this border remains a cause of constant vigil for Indian forces.</li>
<li>India has a longstanding border dispute with China running back to British era in Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Indo-Nepal Border</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India-Nepal Border (1,751 Km) is an open border in the sense that people of both the countries can cross it from any point, despite the existence of border check posts at several locations.</li>
<li>Anti-India organizations use this border to plant their people in the territory of India.</li>
<li>Also, smuggling of gold, small arms, drugs and fake currency helps terrorists in executing an attack.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Indo-Bhutan Border</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>This border (699 km) passes through states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, West Bengal and Sikkim.</li>
<li>Illicit establishment of camps by militant outfits in the dense jungles of south-east Bhutan helps insurgents from India in executing anti-India activities.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Indo-Myanmar Border</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The northeast states of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram share the border with Myanmar (1,643).</li>
<li>Some of the insurgents groups like the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) and ULFA operate from Myanmar, which threatens the security of India as well as Myanmar.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Cross-Border Terrorism through Maritime Borders</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Not only contiguous Border States with land borders are vulnerable to the cross border terrorism but <strong>coastal areas are equally vulnerable</strong>.</li>
<li>Long coastline of the country remains comparatively unguarded. The presence of the Coast Guard is minimal.</li>
<li>In 26/11 attack in terrorists came from the western coast through boats.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Steps Taken by India</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Government of India has created National Investigation Agency (NIA) in 2008 after Mumbai attacks which acts as a federal agency to combat terror.</li>
<li>Multi Agency Centre (MAC) revamped after 26/11 attacks, acts as a multi-agency intelligence coordination mechanism for counter terrorism.</li>
<li>Combating Financing of Terrorism Cell (CFT- Cell) is also created to deal with the policy matters on combating terrorist financing and Fake Indian Currency.</li>
<li>India is also a member of FATF (Financial Action Task Force) whose aim is to establish international standards for combating money laundering and terrorist financing.</li>
<li>Recently FATF puts Pakistan on &lsquo;grey-list&rsquo; over global terror finance.</li>
<li>The government has created observation posts, Border fencing, flood lighting, deployment of modern and hi-tech surveillance equipment to prevent increased immigration.</li>
<li>Comprehensive Integrated Border Management System (CIBMS) has replaced manual surveillance/patrolling of the international borders by electronic surveillance to enhance detection and interception capabilities.</li>
<li>India has been supportive of all efforts, particularly in the UN to combat terrorism and has played a leading role in shaping international opinion and urging the international community to prioritize the fight against terror.</li>
<li>India since 1996 is trying to push a global intergovernmental convention i.e. Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism (CCIT) to tackle terrorism. It can provide a legal framework to enhance prosecution and extradition of terrorists.</li>
<li>Continuous dialogues with neighbouring countries have been initiated from time to time for motivating them for a strict action against terrorists breeding in their respective territories.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Way Forward</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>There is a need to reassess our policies on number of issues pertaining to the management of India&rsquo;s international borders such as intelligence apparatus, internal security and border management.</li>
<li>Technical solutions are necessary to augment and complement the traditional methods of border guarding.</li>
<li>They not only enhance the surveillance and detection capabilities of the border guarding forces but also improve the impact of the border guarding personnel against infiltration and trans-border crimes.</li>
<li>India should move in the direction of specialisation of military to fight cross-border terrorism.</li>
<li>Military should also look at alternative means to strike at the terror camps across the LoC and LAC through mechanisms like Precision Engagement Capability.</li>
<li>A judicious mix of properly trained manpower and affordable and tested technology is likely to yield better results.</li>
<li>War against terrorism is a low intensity conflict or localized war and cannot be waged without the full and unstinted support of the society and can be lost easily if the morale and resolve of the society to fight against terrorism falters.</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/327Drishti_ias_Crossborder-Terrorism.png" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/327Drishti_ias_Crossborder-Terrorism.png" /></a></p>',
			'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
			'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/to-the-points/paper3/cross-border-terrorism'
		],
		(int) 17 => [
			'title' => 'Without Land or Recourse',
			'catname' => 'News Editorials',
			'desc' => '<p>(The editorial is based on the article &ldquo;Without Land or Recourse&rdquo; which appeared in Indian Express on 21st February 2019. In this article, we will discuss the issues related to the recent order of the Supreme Court.)</p>
<p>There is an ongoing concern that recent Supreme Court order may lead to the eviction of lakhs of persons belonging to the Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFDs) categories across 21 States. The Supreme Court has recently rejected their claim as forest dwellers under the <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/forest-dwellers-face-eviction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006</a>, or FRA. That this order negates the claims of citizens under the special protection of the Constitution, viz. the Scheduled Tribes and other vulnerable communities already pushed by gross governmental neglect precariously to the edge, is another matter altogether.</p>
<h3>Background</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The court&rsquo;s orders came in a case filed by wildlife groups questioning the validity of the Forest Rights Act.</li>
<li>Some wildlife NGOs, like petitioner Bangalore-based Wildlife First, believe the law is against the Constitution and it has led to deforestation.</li>
<li>The order in question was issued in the case of Wildlife First &amp; Ors v. Ministry of Forest and Environment &amp; Ors.</li>
<li>The details regarding claims made under the FRA that were placed before the court by the petitioner in 2016 showed that of the 44 lakh claims filed before appropriate authorities in the different States, 20.5 lakh claims (46.5%) were rejected.</li>
<li>A claim is made either for individual or community rights by the people/communities covered by the FRA. This is a plain reading of the Act, which is unambiguous on this score.</li>
<li>The States were then asked by the Supreme Court to report on concrete measures taken to evict the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers from the forest.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Concerns</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In the present order of February 2019, the Supreme Court specifically directs governments in 21 States by name to carry out evictions of rejected claimants without further delay and report on or before July 12. This attracts several questions which are of immediate concern.</li>
<li>According to the 2014 report of the High-Level Committee on Socio-Economic, Health and Educational Status of Tribal Communities in India, constituted by the Government of India (Xaxa Committee), 60% of the forest area in the country is in tribal areas &mdash; protected by Article 19 (5) and Schedules V and VI of the Constitution.</li>
<li>Claims are being rejected without assigning reasons, or based on wrong interpretation of the Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFD) definition and the &lsquo;dependence&rsquo; clause, or simply for lack of evidence or &lsquo;absence of GPS survey&rsquo;.</li>
<li>The land is wrongly considered as &lsquo;not forest land&rsquo;, or because only forest <g class="gr_ gr_71 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling multiReplace" id="71" data-gr-id="71">offence</g> receipts are considered as adequate evidence.</li>
<li>The mere rejection of claims by the state, therefore, does not add up to a finding of the crime of &ldquo;encroachment&rdquo; &mdash; the sheer volume of rejections should instead set alarm bells ringing in the court of procedural improprieties.</li>
<li>The rejections are not being communicated to the claimants, and their right to appeal is not being explained to them nor its exercise facilitated.</li>
<li>The immediate result will be the forced eviction of over one million people belonging to the Scheduled Tribes and other forest communities.</li>
<li>Importantly, the area marked for eviction falls under areas designated under Schedule V and Schedule VI of the Constitution &mdash; there is no reference to the implications for governance in the Scheduled Areas and whether the Supreme Court, in fact, has the authority to order evictions of Scheduled Tribes from Scheduled Areas.</li>
<li>There are already obstacles in the way of including them in the general process of development.</li>
<li>Lacking the skills to survive in a competitive labor market, savvy to negotiate their way or the strength of numbers to exercise influence on political processes, the people of the PVTG will become exceedingly vulnerable.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Way Forward</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The presence of Article 19 (5) in the Fundamental Rights chapter of the Constitution, which specifically enjoins the state to make laws &ldquo;for the protection of the interests of any Scheduled Tribe&rdquo;, is vital.</li>
<li>How has the Supreme Court ordered the eviction in complete disregard of this core and express fundamental right protection to Adivasis (as distinct from legal/statutory protection), which protects them from a range of state and non-state intrusions in Scheduled Areas as well as from the perennial threat of eviction from their <g class="gr_ gr_75 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Punctuation multiReplace" id="75" data-gr-id="75">homelands.</g></li>
<li>It is the obligation of the Supreme Court to protect the Scheduled Tribes and other vulnerable communities from the grave harms of violent dispossession.</li>
<li>The administrative structures at the cutting edge charged with the responsibilities of ensuring the well-being of the people of the PVTG <g class="gr_ gr_86 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Grammar multiReplace" id="86" data-gr-id="86">differ</g> from state to state. States like the undivided Andhra Pradesh had formed special agencies for their welfare. Madhya Pradesh has formed district level agencies for the welfare of the <g class="gr_ gr_59 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling ins-del multiReplace" id="59" data-gr-id="59">PVTG</g>. In other places, the Tribal Development Commissioner or equivalent is charged with the responsibility of looking after them.</li>
<li>Instead of order for eviction, there is a need for adequate documentation and debates on this issue so that forest dwellers won't suffer because of the inefficiencies of administration.</li>
</ul>',
			'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
			'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-editorials/without-land-or-recourse-scheduled-tribes-and-other-traditional-forest-dwellers-recognition-of-forest-rights-act-2006'
		],
		(int) 18 => [
			'title' => 'The Big Picture - Productivity and Sustainability',
			'catname' => 'Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha Discussions',
			'desc' => '<p style="text-align: center;"><iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/lM-NTe8Owr4" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe></p>
<p style="text-align: left;">National Productivity Council (NPC) celebrated &lsquo;National Productivity Week&rsquo; from February 12th to 18th, 2019.</p>
<p><strong>The theme for 2019: Circular Economy for Productivity and Sustainability.</strong> Productivity and Sustainability are interconnected in a way that inside activities of industry affect its outside environment.</p>
<div class="border-bg">
<p>DRISHTI INPUT</p>
<p><strong>National Productivity Council (NPC)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>NPC is a national level organization to promote productivity culture in India.</li>
<li>It is established by the Ministry of Industry, Government of India in 1958, it is an autonomous, multipartite, non-profit organization with equal representation from employers&rsquo; &amp; workers&rsquo; organizations and Government, apart from technical &amp; professional institutions and other interests.</li>
<li>NPC is a constituent of the Tokyo-based Asian Productivity Organisation (APO), an Intergovernmental Body, of which the Government of India is a founder member.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>What is the Circular Economy?</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>It is an economy where products are designed for durability, reuse and recyclability and thus almost everything gets reused, remanufactured, and, recycled into a raw material or used as a source of energy.</strong></li>
<li>It includes <strong>3 R&rsquo;s (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle), Refurbishment, Recover, and Repairing of materials.</strong> Hence, Circular Economy focuses on increasing productivity in terms of more efficient utilization of resources.</li>
<li>For Example: If a person is planning to discard his/her mobile, it can be given to someone else (i.e. giving the mobile second life-REUSE), rather than throwing it just like that. Once the mobile reaches its end of life, it can be ensured that everything embedded in it, aluminum, copper, plastic etc. should be brought back to production cycle so that the circle of the economy gets completed.</li>
<li><strong>Currently, most of the countries follow a linear process in which raw materials are taken from the environment, turn in to new products which are then disposed of after use.</strong></li>
<li>Germany and Japan have used it as a binding principle for reorganizing its economy, whereas China even has a law on it.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Benefits for Industry</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Circular Economy fulfills the need for raw materials required by industries, especially the manufacturing industries.</strong> The output produced by industries in a circular economy comes back to the industries in the form of input, for e.g. when parts of mobile will be segregated, copper and aluminum will become raw materials for some industries.</li>
<li><strong>Also, the circular economy focuses on efficient utilization of resources which helps industries in earning cash profits equivalent to 3-5% of their turnover.</strong> Ultimately, QCDF (Quality, Cost, Delivery, and Flexibility) and sustainability level of industries get improved.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Benefits of Circular Economy</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>For Environment:</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Millions of Tonnes of Waste gets generated in countries.</strong> Circular Economy solves the problem of disposal of waste by converting waste into raw materials.</li>
<li>Besides the problem of solid waste management, the circular economy also solves the problem of air pollution, water pollution, and land pollution.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>For Consumers:</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>The products in the circular economy are more cost effective for consumers as they tend to be more efficient</strong>, besides having a longer shelf life.</li>
<li>Increased Efficiency leads to a reduction in the cost of maintenance as well as that of disposal, which otherwise a consumer has to incur in a huge amount.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Circular Economy and India</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>India has a huge potential for reuse and recycling</strong> as less than 10-15% of the total waste generated goes into the recycling process. Circular Economy will boost the reuse and recycling of materials.</li>
<li>To start with, <strong>sectors like construction, agriculture and vehicle and mobility can be considered</strong> as they are going to get the largest growth in coming years and thus India will be able to save more than Rs. 40 lakh Crore by 2030.</li>
<li><strong>India is already on its path to the circular economy</strong>. Initiatives of NPC and government show that. &lsquo;Digital India&rsquo; Program contains a significant component of the recycling of electronic wastes. Swachh Bharat Mission is also about making wealth out of wastes.</li>
<li>To further provide a boost to a circular economy in India, a<strong> policy framework on the same is </strong><g class="gr_ gr_89 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Grammar only-ins replaceWithoutSep" id="89" data-gr-id="89">need</g><strong> of the hour.</strong></li>
<li>Also, Manufacturing Sector, especially MSMEs can help a lot in transformation towards a circular economy. The sector should <strong>&lsquo;DECIDE&rsquo; i.e</strong>.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Designing processes for refurbishment and easy cycling.</li>
<li>Educating masses on Circular Economy and its benefits.</li>
<li>Preparation of Collaborative Models for smooth implementation of Circular Economy.</li>
<li>Innovating Products for circularity.</li>
<li>Digitization for transparency, virtualization, dematerialization, and feedback <g class="gr_ gr_90 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Grammar multiReplace" id="90" data-gr-id="90">driven</g> intelligence for saving resources.</li>
<li>Energy-Efficient for environmental sustainability.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Resources in the world are finite. The circular economy will help the inefficient utilization of resources.</strong> Mindset is the key for implementation of Circular Economy. Countries need to think about what they are taking from the environment and what they are contributing to it. They also need to ensure that the material gets recycled or reused before it turns into waste.</p>',
			'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
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		],
		(int) 19 => [
			'title' => 'RBI to Merge Three Categories of NBFCs',
			'catname' => 'News Analysis',
			'desc' => '<p>The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has decided to merge three categories of Non Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) into a single category to provide greater operational flexibility to non-banking lenders.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>NBFCs categorized as Asset Finance Companies (AFC), Loan Companies (LCs) and Investment Companies (ICs), will be merged into a new category called NBFC - Investment and Credit Company (NBFC-ICC).</li>
</ul>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Asset Finance Company (AFC)</strong> : An AFC is a company which is a financial institution focussing on financing of physical assets supporting productive/economic activity, such as automobiles, tractors, generator sets etc.</li>
<li><strong>Investment Company (IC)</strong> : IC means any company which is a financial institution carrying on as its principal business the acquisition of securities.</li>
<li><strong>Loan Company (LC)</strong>: LC means any company which is a financial institution carrying on as its principal business the providing of finance whether by making loans or advances or otherwise for any activity other than its own but does not include an Asset Finance Company.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Non-Banking Financial Company (NBFC)</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A Non-Banking Financial Company (NBFC) is a <strong>company registered under the Companies Act, 1956</strong> engaged in the business of loans and advances, acquisition of shares/stocks/bonds/debentures/securities issued by Government or local authority or other marketable securities of a like nature.</li>
<li>NBFC <strong>does not</strong> include any institution whose <strong>principal business</strong> is that of<strong> agriculture activity</strong>,<strong> industrial activity</strong>, <strong>purchase or sale of any goods</strong> (other than securities) or providing any services and sale/purchase/construction of immovable property.</li>
<li>A non-banking institution which is a company and has principal business of receiving deposits under any scheme or arrangement in one lump sum or in installments by way of contributions or in any other manner, is also a non-banking financial company (Residuary non-banking company).</li>
</ul>
<h3>Difference between banks &amp; NBFCs</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>NBFCs lend and make investments and hence their activities are akin to that of banks; however there are a few differences as given below:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>NBFC <strong>cannot accept demand deposits</strong>;</li>
<li>NBFCs <strong>do not form part of the payment and settlement system</strong> and cannot issue cheques drawn on itself;</li>
<li><strong>Deposit insurance facility of Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation is not available</strong> to depositors of NBFCs, unlike in case of banks.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>',
			'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
			'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/rbi-to-merge-three-categories-of-nbfcs'
		]
	],
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	(int) 0 => [
		'title' => 'India Bombs Jaish-e-Muhammad Camp in Pakistan',
		'catname' => 'News Analysis',
		'desc' => '<p>Twelve days after the Pulwama attack, in an aerial surgical strike, the Indian Air Force (IAF) has bombed the Jaish-e-Mohammad&rsquo;s (JeM) terror-training camp in Balakot in the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The operation was carried out by 12 Mirage-2000 fighter jets, after intelligence inputs that the said JeM facility is crowded with 200-325 terrorists.</li>
</ul>
<h3>India&rsquo;s Statement</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India has said that the <strong>strike was based on hard intelligence inputs</strong> about the presence of terrorists in the camp.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>By calling it an intelligence-led operation, the government was trying to send a message to the global audience that the airstrikes were not done at some arbitrarily chosen place but were part of a well-considered action.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>India said that strike was <strong>&ldquo;non-military preemptive action&rdquo;</strong> was important for two reasons:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>By calling it non-military, India wanted to reassure everyone that <strong>it is not an act against the Pakistani military.</strong></li>
<li>The words &ldquo;preemptive action&rdquo; were to suggest that the <strong>airstrike was not an act of revenge or retribution but an act of self-defense</strong> to prevent a likely terror attack in the future.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>International Response</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India has received <strong>support for its air strike from several countries like Australia and France.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The countries <strong>recognized India&rsquo;s right to self-defense,</strong> and asked Pakistan to put an end to operations of terrorist groups established on its territory<g class="gr_ gr_105 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Punctuation multiReplace" id="105" data-gr-id="105">,.</g></li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The US said that India and Pakistan <strong>should exercise restraint,</strong> and avoid escalation at any cost and avoid further military activity.</li>
<li>The British government called on India and Pakistan to <strong>pursue diplomatic solutions.</strong></li>
<li>China has said that the two countries <strong>should keep restraint</strong> and do more to improve bilateral relations.</li>
<li>With the exception of the<strong> Organisation of Islamic Cooperation</strong>, there has been no global criticism of India&rsquo;s statement on the strikes.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Analysis</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Indian Air Force&rsquo;s strike on a Jaish-e-Mohammad terror training camp in Pakistan&rsquo;s Balakot <strong>delivers a robust but calibrated message that India can strike deep inside Pakistan for its self-defense.</strong></li>
<li>Airstrikes by the Indian Air Force <strong>establishes a new threshold between the two nuclear neighbors</strong> for an Indian response to a terror attack.</li>
<li>This was the <strong>first time Indian fighter jets have crossed Line of Control, since 1971.</strong> Even during the Kargil war in 1999, Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee had drawn a red line over the IAF crossing the LoC, to avoid international recrimination.</li>
<li>Along with these surgical strikes, India is also working diplomatically to isolate Pakistan.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/unsc-condemns-pulwama-attack" target="_blank" rel="noopener">UN Security Council has condemned the Pulwama Attack.</a></li>
<li><a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/important-facts-for-prelims-4th-january-2019" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Pakistan has been listed in the Financial Action Task Forces (FATF) greylist.</a></li>
<li><a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/india-revokes-mfn-status-to-pakistan" target="_blank" rel="noopener">India has also withdrawn Most Favoured Nation Status of Pakistan.</a></li>
<li>India has also taken Pakistan to International Court of Justice against death sentence given to Indian citizen Kulbhushan Jadhav.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>What is a Surgical Strike</strong>?</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A surgical strike is a<strong> swift and targeted attack on a specific target</strong> that aims to neutralize them while ensuring minimum collateral damage to the surrounding areas and civilians.</li>
<li>India has conducted surgical strikes in <strong>2015 in Myanmar against the insurgent groups</strong> and in<strong> 2016 in Pakistan-Occupied-Kashmir against terror launch pads</strong> along the line of control.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>How is it carried out?</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>These attacks can be carried out via air raids, airdropping special operations teams or a ground operation.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>The significance of Surgical Strike</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Neutralization of targets with surgical strikes also prevents escalation to a full-blown war.</li>
<li>Surgical strikes are part of<strong> India&rsquo;s Cold Start doctrine</strong> and have proved effective in foiling infiltration bid by terrorist groups across the LoC.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Cold Start Doctrine</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>The &lsquo;Cold Start&rsquo; doctrine of the Indian Armed Forces envisages swift deployment of troops on the western border within days if a situation of a full-blown war arises.</strong></li>
<li>This doctrine aims to allow Indian forces to conduct sustained attacks while preventing a nuclear retaliation from Pakistan. The operation would be carried out by a unified battle group involving various branches of India&rsquo;s military.</li>
<li><strong>The Cold Start doctrine sought to prepare the army in such a manner that offensive operations could be undertaken within 48 hours of the orders being issued, enabling the Indian troops to take their Pakistani counterparts by surprise.</strong></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Way Forward</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Pakistan has denied that the Indian strike caused any damage on the ground.</strong> This may obviate the need for retaliatory strikes, or if Pakistan responds this could escalate the situation with a military response.</li>
<li>Pakistan could also make a break from its past, and begin to shut down the terror camps on its soil, which would win friends internationally and ensure peace in the region.</li>
<li>Surgical strikes are not a one-stop solution, uprooting terrorism will require sustained efforts on by India diplomatically at the global level, which also includes the adoption of <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/at-unga-india-call-for-early-adoption-of-ccit" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism (CCIT).</strong></a></li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Systems Used</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Mirage-2000</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Dassault Mirage 2000 is a French multirole, single-engine fourth-generation jet fighter manufactured by Dassault Aviation. It was designed in the late 1970s.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>SPICE 2000</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>SPICE stands for &lsquo;Smart, Precise Impact and Cost-Effective&rsquo; a kit which converts a conventional bomb into a smart munition and is manufactured by Rafael of Israel. The &lsquo;2000&rsquo; refers to a bomb of 2,000 pounds (about 1,000 kg).</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Crystal Maze Mk2</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Crystal Maze Mk2 also called AGM 142 Popeye is a precision-guided munition (PGM).</li>
<li>The PGM enable the aircraft to release them from stand-off distances while staying away from harm&rsquo;s way and the munitions glide to the target once launched.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>NETRA AEW&amp;C</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The IAF also deployed the Israeli Phalcon and indigenous Netra early warning aircraft to monitor the mission &mdash; to direct the aircraft</li>
<li>IAF also used a Heron long-range Unmanned Aerial Vehicle that was used for monitoring and assessment.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>',
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	],
	(int) 1 => [
		'title' => 'Global Leaders Adopt ‘Delhi Declaration’ on Digital Health',
		'catname' => 'News Analysis',
		'desc' => '<p>Recently, as part of the high-level summit, the ministers and delegation adopted the Delhi Declaration on digital health for sustainable development.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It was adopted at the concluding session of the &lsquo;<a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/important-fact-for-prelims-26th-february-2019" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>4th Global Digital Health Partnership Summit</strong></a>&rsquo;.</li>
<li>The declaration calls for World Health Organization&rsquo;s (WHO&rsquo;s) leadership in digital health and for it to establish a specific mechanism to centrally coordinate digital health to assist its Member States.</li>
<li>An example of application of Digital Health for sustainable development is <strong>telemedicine, remote care and mobile health delivering care in people's homes, instead of in hospitals and clinics.</strong></li>
<li>The global intergovernmental meeting on digital health was hosted by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare in collaboration with World Health Organization (WHO) and the Global Digital Health Partnership (GDHP).</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>World Health Organisation</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The World Health Organisation (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations that is concerned with international public health.</li>
<li>It is headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland and the WHO&rsquo;s constitution came into force on April 7, 1948&mdash;a date now celebrated every year as <strong>World Health Day.</strong></li>
<li>The World Health Assembly is the supreme decision-making body in WHO. The assembly meets annually and is attended by delegations from 194 member states.</li>
</ul>
</div>',
		'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
		'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/global-leaders-adopt-delhi-declaration-on-digital-health'
	],
	(int) 2 => [
		'title' => 'Looming Threat to Food Security',
		'catname' => 'News Analysis',
		'desc' => '<p>A recent report titled &ldquo;State of the World&rsquo;s Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture&rdquo; has warned of a growing threat to global food security as a result of severe loss of biodiversity &mdash; that is, plants, animals and microorganisms that contribute to food production.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It is released by the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of the United Nations.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Findings</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India was placed among the countries with a very high threat to soil biodiversity on an index that was created by combining eight stressors of soil biodiversity, which include loss of above-ground diversity, overgrazing, among others.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Soil biota is critical for release of nutrients to the crops as well as organic matter formation. With climate change soil biota will be impacted even more and there will be further loss of nutrients causing collapse of agriculture in some places.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The global map shows almost all of India falls in the highly stressed zone along with some parts of Africa, Americas and Asia.</li>
<li>The report also highlights the loss of biological control agents (BCAs) &mdash; insects and pests &mdash; as an important factor in declining biodiversity.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India has noted a decline of parasitoid wasps and parasitoid flies, which play an important role in biological pest control.</li>
<li>Bangladesh has reported a decline in spiders and predatory insects in fields.</li>
<li>Nepal has mentioned a general decline in the diversity of the natural enemies of pests.</li>
<li>The United States has reported a decline of almost 40% in its grassland bird index between 1968 and 2014.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>On climate change, it notes that extreme weather events are causing major disruptions to species distribution and yields.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>For example, rising temperatures in the tropics are pushing coffee growing towards higher elevations in mountainous areas.</li>
<li>Frequent cold or windy days in spring can also disrupt pollination process.</li>
<li>Egypt has reported that rising temperatures will lead to northwards shifts in the range of fish species, with impacts on fishery production.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Background</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Biodiversity in agriculture is crucial to adapting to climate change.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>E.g.: Livestock diversity is a buffer against crop failure. In India, Small land holders and landless rural dwellers manage 75% of livestock resources and obtain nearly half of their income from them.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Risk can be reduced, for example, by raising species, breeds or varieties that are well adapted to coping with shocks such as droughts or disease outbreaks or by raising a number of different types of crops, livestock or aquatic organisms so as to increase the likelihood that at least some will survive such events.</li>
<li>Before the Green Revolution [of the 1960s], India was growing a large biodiversity of crops on a landscape level. There were different cropping and tree systems at a farm level. Even if there was a failure, all crops would not be affected at the same time.</li>
<li>However, specialisation of crops for high yields has made farmers vulnerable. Crop failures are common when there is natural disaster or pest attack.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Food and Agriculture Organization is an agency of the United Nations that leads international efforts to defeat hunger.</li>
<li>FAO is also a source of knowledge and information, and helps developing countries and countries in transition modernize and improve agriculture, forestry and fisheries practices, ensuring good nutrition and food security for all.</li>
<li>Formation: 16 October 1945, in Quebec City, Canada</li>
<li>Headquarters: Rome, Italy</li>
<li>Every year, World Food Day (Theme for 2018- Zero Hunger) is celebrated on October 16 to commemorate the founding of the Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO) of United Nations in the year 1945.</li>
<li>The Sustainable Development Goal (SDG-2) also aims to &ldquo;End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture&rdquo; by 2030.</li>
</ul>
</div>',
		'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
		'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/looming-threat-to-food-security'
	],
	(int) 3 => [
		'title' => 'Angkor City in Cambodia',
		'catname' => 'News Analysis',
		'desc' => '<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A study has suggested that the <strong>Angkor, the ancient capital of the Khmer empire</strong>, appears to have suffered a gradual decline rather than a catastrophic collapse.</li>
<li>Previously many archaeologists and historians have said that the <strong>abandonment of Angkor in 15th-century, was due to 1431 invasion by the Thai Kingdom from Ayutthaya.</strong></li>
<li>The city of Angkor is also home to <strong>UNESCO World Heritage Site, Angkor Vat.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Angkor Archeological Park</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Angkor is one of the most important archaeological sites in South-East Asia.</li>
<li>Stretching over some 400 km<sup>2</sup>, including forested area, <strong>Angkor Archaeological Park contains the magnificent remains of the different capitals of the Khmer Empire, from the 9th to the 15th century.</strong></li>
<li>They include the famous <strong>Temple of Angkor Wat and, at Angkor Thom, the Bayon Temple with its countless sculptural decorations.</strong></li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</ul>
<p style="text-align: center;"><iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/MSpPUFdYpJI" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe></p>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Angkor Vat Temple</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Angkor Wat is a temple complex in Cambodia</strong> and one of the <strong>largest religious monuments in the world.</strong></li>
<li>It was <strong>originally constructed as a Hindu temple</strong> dedicated to the god Vishnu for the Khmer Empire, it was <strong>gradually transformed into a Buddhist temple</strong> towards the end of the 12th century.</li>
<li>It was built by the Khmer King Suryavarman II in the early 12th century in Yaśodharapura (present-day Angkor), the capital of the Khmer Empire, as his state temple and eventual mausoleum.</li>
</ul>
</div>',
		'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
		'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/angkor-city-in-cambodia'
	],
	(int) 4 => [
		'title' => 'Indian Diaspora',
		'catname' => 'Paper 2',
		'desc' => '<h3>Why in News?</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Recently India celebrated its 15<sup>th</sup> Pravasi Bhartiya Diwas from 21<sup>st</sup> January to 23<sup>rd</sup> January.</li>
<li>India every year celebrates its Pravasi Bhartiya Diwas on 9th January to commemorate return of its most iconic Pravasi M.K. Gandhi from Africa on 9<sup>th</sup> Jan 1915.</li>
<li>India would be celebrating Mahatma Gandhi&rsquo;s 150<sup>th</sup> birth anniversary in the year 2019.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Indian Diaspora</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Diaspora encompasses a group of people who can either trace their origins to India or who are Indian citizens living abroad, either temporarily or permanently.</li>
<li>It includes Non-Resident Indians (NRIs), Persons of Indian Origin (PIOs) and Overseas Citizens of India (OCI).</li>
<li>PIO and OCI card holders were merged under OCI category in 2015.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Overseas Citizen of India</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A person with OCI status is not an Indian citizen. The person does not have voting rights in India, nor can contest elections or hold any constitutional office.</li>
<li>An Overseas Citizen of India is however entitled to some benefits such as a multiple-entry, multi-purpose life-long visa to visit India.</li>
<li>They are exempted from police reporting for any length of stay in the country.</li>
<li>They are also granted all rights in parity with NRIs except, the right to acquisition of agricultural or plantation properties.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Non-Resident Indian</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>An Indian citizen who is ordinarily residing outside India and holds an Indian Passport.</li>
<li>A person is considered NRI if She is not in India for 182 days or more during the financial year Or;</li>
<li>If he/she is in India for less than 365 days during the 4 years preceding that year and less than 60 days in that year.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Indian example of large scale migration began during the British rule as indentured labourers to former colonies like Fiji, Kenya and Malaysia (also known as <strong>Girmitiya people</strong>).</li>
<li>Today the Indian diaspora numbers over 20 million, reflecting the full multiplicity, variety of the rich social, ethnic and cultural tapestry of the land of its origin.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Importance of Overseas Indian</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>One of the greatest benefits of engaging with the 30-million-strong Indian diaspora has been in terms of remittances.</li>
<li>Remittances close to 69 billion dollar make an invaluable contribution by aiding in socio-economic development, poverty reduction and changes in consumption behaviour in rural areas.</li>
<li>NRIs are more prone to donating to domestic charities because of the <strong>strong cultural and emotional feelings</strong> that they nurse.</li>
<li>Diaspora acts as <strong>'agents of change'</strong> facilitating and enhancing investment, accelerating industrial development, and boosting international trade and tourism.</li>
<li>Another tangible long-term advantage in nurturing ties with an active Diaspora is an accelerated technological sector.</li>
<li>A less tangible but important advantage in having a large emigrant group is <strong>&ldquo;diaspora diplomacy&rdquo;</strong> and they act as <strong>&ldquo;bridge-builders&rdquo;</strong> between their home and adopted countries.</li>
<li>Indo-US Civil Nuclear Deal is a case in point, as ethnic Indians in United States successfully lobbied for clinching of the N-deal.</li>
<li>The migration of less-skilled labour (especially to West Asia) has also helped in bringing down disguised unemployment in India.</li>
<li>Migration of skilled labours to foreign countries and their eventual success bolstered the nation&rsquo;s image.</li>
<li>Diaspora&rsquo;s motives to invest in India are in contrast to non-diaspora FDI. Their investments are long lasting as many of them wish to establish a long-term base in India.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Government Initiative</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Government&rsquo;s initiatives towards the diaspora are two-pronged. Firstly non-residents are provided with consular services, protection and outreach activities.</li>
<li>At the same time, policies are created to encourage the diaspora to contribute in India&rsquo;s growth through philanthropy, knowledge transfers, and investments in development projects.</li>
<li>There is a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) between the Ministry of External Affairs (MEA) and the Ministry of Skill Development and Entrepreneurship (MSDE) for implementation of the <strong>Pravasi Kaushal Vikas Yojana (PKVY)</strong>.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Pravasi Kaushal Vikas Yojana</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The objective of the Scheme is to institutionalize the process of skill development of emigrant Indian workers.</li>
<li>Provide them basic knowledge about laws, language and culture of the destination countries for the purpose of overseas employment.</li>
<li>The Scheme also aims at capacity building in the country in the area of development of standards, learning material, assessment standards, testing and certification on par with global standards.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Indian Government has also launched <strong>Scholarship Programme for Diaspora Children (SPDC)</strong> under which 100 scholarships per annum are granted to Persons of Indian Origin (PIO) and Non Resident Indians (NRI) students for undergraduate courses.</li>
<li><strong>Know India Program&rsquo; (KIP)</strong> is a flagship initiative for Diaspora engagement which familiarizes Indian-origin youth (18-30 years) with their Indian roots and contemporary India.</li>
<li>Under <strong>Minimum Referral Wages</strong> <strong>(MRW),</strong> applicable to <strong>Emigration Check Required (ECR)</strong> <strong>countries,</strong> India has increased the minimum wages of Indian workers employed as industrial workers, domestic servants, cleaners and labourers.</li>
<li><strong>E-migrate system</strong> requires all foreign employers to register in the database. It ensures the welfare and check on exploitation met to emigrants.</li>
<li>Indian government has also started <strong>Madad Portal</strong> to take timely and speedy action on grievances addressed by people living abroad.</li>
<li>In words of our prime minister, Indian diaspora are our 'Rashtradoots'. He addressed Indian diaspora in different parts of the world from Madison Square, New York to Kigali, Rawanda.</li>
<li>The Government of India has given several incentives to NRIs for investing their funds in India. They are exempt from several taxes and other charges. NRI seats are reserved in all the medical, engineering and other professional colleges.</li>
<li>The Representation of the People (Amendment) Bill 2017 the provision would help non-resident Indians (NRIs) to participate in the electoral process. It extends the facility of 'proxy voting' to overseas Indians, on the lines of service voters.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Challenges</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Outside India</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Rising incidence of hate speech and crimes</strong> against Indian Diaspora by the locals due to racism, communalism emboldened by coming of nationalist and ultra nationalist governments to power in many countries.</li>
<li><strong>Increasing anti globalization:</strong> Fear of losing jobs and educational opportunities to outsiders has resulted in stricter visa rules in many countries including USA, Australia etc.</li>
<li>Sectarian crisis, increasing terrorist activities and war in the Middle East countries (Yemen, Oman, Libya, Syria etc) leave our diaspora vulnerable to attacks.</li>
<li><strong>Adverse local laws</strong> to encourage more employment from locals such as <strong>Nitaqat Law of Saudi Arabia</strong> (mandates one local to be hired in place of 10 migrants) has adversely affected prospects of the Indian working class in Saudi Arabia.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>In India</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Out Migration results in substantial drop in the supply of professionals for running institutions and organisations in India.</li>
<li>Remittances are not always used for beneficial purposes. For instance, India faced problems due to foreign funding for extremist movements like the Khalistan movement.</li>
<li>The NRIs are not allowed to set up their firms directly in India due to which India is not able to take the advantage of their entrepreneurial skills.</li>
<li><strong>E-Migrate system and the Minimum Referral Wages</strong> policy have been detrimental to India as companies now find it easier to hire labour from countries like Bangladesh and Pakistan.</li>
<li>Poor schemes coupled with ineffectual implementation hinder the Diasporas&rsquo; contribution towards the growth of India.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Way Forward</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India should formalise a rotation program wherein top NRI scientists, engineers, doctors, managers and professionals serve Indian public sector organizations for a brief period, lending their expertise, similar to VAJRA Scheme.</li>
<li>India should aggressively court NRIs to invest in India &mdash; especially for projects which focus on rural development &mdash; by offering attractive interest rates on deposits.</li>
<li>India can open a separate Minister-of-State level department for NRI administration - similar to the Veterans&rsquo; Administration in the US.</li>
<li>Social media tools have made it easy and inexpensive for Indian Diaspora to stay in touch with family and friends back home, and their link to India has never been stronger. It is time that the Indian government leveraged this strong bond for the greater good of the nation.</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/823Drishti_ias_Indian-diaspora.png" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/823Drishti_ias_Indian-diaspora.png" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></a></p>',
		'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
		'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/to-the-points/Paper2/indian-diaspora'
	],
	(int) 5 => [
		'title' => 'Important Fact For Prelims (27th February 2019)',
		'catname' => 'News Analysis',
		'desc' => '<h3>Exercise Sampriti 2019</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The <strong>8<sup>th</sup> edition of India-Bangladesh</strong> joint military exercise, <strong>&lsquo;Exercise Sampriti 2019&rsquo;</strong> will be conducted at Tangail, Bangladesh from March 2<sup>nd</sup> to 15<sup>th</sup>.</li>
<li>The exercise will involve tactical level operations in a <g class="gr_ gr_96 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling ins-del" id="96" data-gr-id="96">counter insurgency</g> and counter terrorism environment under the mandate of the United Nations.</li>
<li>The Exercise Sampriti is hosted alternately by both the countries. The <strong>7<sup>th</sup> edition was held in India at Mizoram.</strong></li>
<li>The exercise aims to build, strengthen and promote positive relations between the Armies of India and Bangladesh.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Space Flight of First UAE Astronaut</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The<strong> first astronaut from the United Arab Emirates (UAE)</strong> will head to the<strong> International Space Station (ISS)</strong> via the Russian Soyuz rocket on 25th <g class="gr_ gr_128 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Punctuation only-del replaceWithoutSep" id="128" data-gr-id="128">September,</g> 2019.</li>
<li>After this UAE will join the list of <strong>eighteen countries that have sent their people to ISS.</strong></li>
<li>The pioneering mission to the ISS is part of the UAE Astronaut Programme that aims to <g class="gr_ gr_106 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling multiReplace" id="106" data-gr-id="106">fulfil</g> the UAE&rsquo;s aspirations in taking part in scientific missions and manned space exploration missions.</li>
<li>In 2018, UAE launched its<strong> first locally made satellite KhalifaSat from Japan.</strong> It has planned a Mars probe named as Hope Mars Mission, for the next year.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>International Space Station (ISS)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>ISS is a <strong>habitable artificial satellite - the single largest man-made structure in low earth orbit.</strong></li>
<li>It circles the Earth in roughly 92 minutes and completes 15.5 orbits per day.</li>
<li>The ISS programme is a joint project between <strong>five participating space agencies: NASA (United States), Roscosmos (Russia), JAXA (Japan), ESA (Europe), and CSA (Canada)</strong> but its ownership and use <g class="gr_ gr_108 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Grammar multiReplace" id="108" data-gr-id="108">has</g> been established by intergovernmental treaties and agreements.</li>
<li>Its first component was launched into orbit in 1998 and its development and assembly <g class="gr_ gr_114 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Grammar multiReplace" id="114" data-gr-id="114">continues</g>, with components scheduled for launch this year.</li>
<li>It serves as a microgravity and space environment research laboratory in which crew members conduct experiments in biology, human biology, physics, astronomy, meteorology, and other fields.</li>
<li>Continuous presence at ISS has resulted <g class="gr_ gr_120 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Grammar multiReplace" id="120" data-gr-id="120">into</g> the longest continuous human presence in the low earth orbit.</li>
<li>It is expected to <strong>operate until 2030.</strong></li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Gynandromorphs</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>According to Scientists, the <strong>study of gynandromorphs</strong> could offer clues as to why some human diseases strike one gender more than the other.</li>
<li>Gynander or gynandromorphs are the organisms in which the<strong> body consists of both male and female parts.</strong></li>
<li>The term is derived from the <strong>Greek words (gyne = woman; </strong><g class="gr_ gr_98 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling" id="98" data-gr-id="98">aner</g><strong> = man and morphe = form).</strong> Thus, in these <g class="gr_ gr_133 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Punctuation only-ins replaceWithoutSep" id="133" data-gr-id="133">animals</g> one part of the body shows female and the other part male features. The phenomenon has been <strong>documented in birds, crustaceans </strong><g class="gr_ gr_134 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Punctuation only-ins replaceWithoutSep" id="134" data-gr-id="134">and</g><strong> butterflies.</strong></li>
<li>However, it still remains a mystery as to how gynandromorphs are born. <strong>Gynandromorphs occur naturally, usually resulting from a random genetic error.</strong></li>
<li>These instances of split-sex animals and insects could offer clues to why some human diseases strike one sex more than the other.</li>
<li>Diseases like multiple sclerosis, obesity, metabolic syndrome, autoimmune disease, Alzheimer&rsquo;s, even <g class="gr_ gr_130 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling multiReplace" id="130" data-gr-id="130">ageing</g> <strong>differs by sex.</strong> <g class="gr_ gr_129 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Grammar only-ins replaceWithoutSep" id="129" data-gr-id="129">Few</g> decades back, scientists did not think that sex chromosomes played any role in causing sex differences in these diseases.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Climate-Smart Varieties of Rice</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Recently, the <strong>National Rice Research Institute (NRRI)</strong>, has released <strong>four new rice varieties</strong>, including two high-protein and two climate-smart varieties.</li>
<li>The four new varieties <g class="gr_ gr_132 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Grammar multiReplace" id="132" data-gr-id="132">comprises</g> of:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Two high-protein rice varieties (CR Dhan 310 and CR Dhan 311)</strong> and</li>
<li><strong>Two climate-smart varieties (CR Dhan 801 and CR Dhan 802)</strong>, which are tolerant to both submergence and drought and few biotic stresses to face the challenges of climate change.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>NRRI also developed a <strong>Mobile App &lsquo;riceXpert&rsquo; to provide information</strong> to farmers in real time besides facilitating the flow of information from scientist to farmers.</li>
<li>NRRI is the <strong>nodal agency</strong> for planning, implementation <g class="gr_ gr_104 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Punctuation only-ins replaceWithoutSep" id="104" data-gr-id="104">and</g> monitoring of the <strong>Bringing Green Revolution in Eastern India programme.</strong></li>
<li>It was <strong>established in 1946</strong> and <g class="gr_ gr_100 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Punctuation only-ins replaceWithoutSep" id="100" data-gr-id="100">subsequently</g> the administrative control of the Institute was transferred to the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in 1966.</li>
<li>NRRI is one of the<strong> institutes of Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR</strong>) and is located at <strong>Cuttack in the state of Odisha</strong>.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Quick Reaction Surface-to-Air Missile</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><g class="gr_ gr_131 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling multiReplace" id="131" data-gr-id="131">Defence</g> Research and Development Organisation test fired <strong>indigenously</strong> developed <strong>Quick Reach Surface-to-Air missiles</strong> (QRSAM) from Integrated Test Range Chandipur, in Odisha.</li>
<li>The test flights successfully demonstrated the robust Control, Aerodynamics, Propulsion, Structural performance <g class="gr_ gr_111 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Punctuation only-ins replaceWithoutSep" id="111" data-gr-id="111">and</g> high <g class="gr_ gr_112 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling multiReplace" id="112" data-gr-id="112">manoeuvring</g> capabilities thus proving the design configuration.</li>
<li>It is a state-of-the-art missile with <g class="gr_ gr_95 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling ins-del multiReplace" id="95" data-gr-id="95">all weather</g> weapon system, a strike range of 30 km and capable of engaging multiple targets.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Bagru Block Printing<img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1577427947_image23.jpg" width="200" caption="false" style="float: right;" /></h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Union Council Minister Smriti Irani</strong> inaugurated the <strong>'Titanwala Museum'</strong> in Bagru village of Rajasthan that showcases the <strong>Chippa community's (literally meaning people who stamp or print)</strong> Hand-block printing.</li>
<li>Bagru printing is one of the traditional techniques of printing with <strong>natural <g class="gr_ gr_94 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling multiReplace" id="94" data-gr-id="94">colour</g></strong> followed by the <g class="gr_ gr_103 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling" id="103" data-gr-id="103">chippas</g> of a remote place of Rajasthan.</li>
<li>Bagru printers use a technique called <g class="gr_ gr_97 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling" id="97" data-gr-id="97">dabu</g> in which a mixture of black clay, acacia gum, spoiled wheat flour, limestone is printed onto the fabric. The fabric can then be dyed and left in the sun to dry.</li>
</ul>',
		'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
		'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/important-fact-for-prelims-27-february-2019'
	],
	(int) 6 => [
		'title' => 'Aviation Conclave 2019',
		'catname' => 'News Analysis',
		'desc' => '<p>The Ministry of Civil Aviation, in association with Airports Authority of India (AAI), Airport Authority of India - Cargo Logistics &amp; Allied Services Company Limited (AAICLAS) and Confederation of Indian Industry, is organizing the Aviation Conclave 2019.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The theme of the conclave is &ldquo;Flying for All&rdquo;.</li>
<li>Aviation Conclave brings into focus new aviation business to India, in particular, drones systems, manufacturing of aircraft in India, financing and leasing of aircraft from India by Indian and foreign airlines, transforming Indian airports into next-gen aviation hubs, and unleashing the air cargo potential by integrating every village of India in global value chains.</li>
</ul>
<h3>The 5 Key Areas of Deliberation</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><a href="https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/digital-sky-platform-drone-regulation-1-0&amp;sa=D&amp;ust=1551255259362000&amp;usg=AFQjCNHlwfjtgz7w6Tjp_ynVINCTmztONQ" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Drone-Ecosystem Policy Roadmap</a>,</li>
<li><strong>Roadmap for Manufacturing Aircraft and associated equipment</strong>, including Regional Transport Aircraft, in India,</li>
<li>The <strong>Project Rupee Raftaar</strong>- which aims at Aircraft Financing and Leasing from India,</li>
<li><strong>National Air Cargo Policy:</strong> it seeks to make India among the top five air freight markets by 2025, besides creating air transport shipment hubs at all major airports over the next six years.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The policy will encourage code sharing/interline agreements between foreign and Indian carriers.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Mission to transform Indian Airports</strong> into Next-Gen Aviation Hubs</li>
</ul>
<h3>India&rsquo;s Aviation Industry</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Indian civil aviation industry is undergoing an expansion, driven by factors such as<strong> low-cost carriers (LCCs), modern airports, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) in domestic airlines, advanced information technology (IT)</strong> interventions and a strong <strong>focus on regional connectivity.</strong></li>
<li>Growth in aviation is also <strong>increasing demand for MRO</strong> (maintenance, repair, and overhaul) facilities.</li>
<li>Greater focus is given on <strong>infrastructure development</strong> &ndash; increasing liberalization - Open Sky Policy; AAI driving modernization of airports and Air &amp; Navigation Systems.</li>
<li><strong>Enhanced Skill Development</strong> in the sector can leverage India's human capital potential and can create job opportunities.</li>
<li><strong>Innovation and Technology</strong> &ndash; GPS Aided Geo Augmented Navigation (GAGAN): India's first satellite-based navigation system has been launched along with NO Objection Certificate Application System (NOCAS) which streamlines online process of timely NOC for height clearances of buildings around airports and E-Governance for Civil Aviation (<g class="gr_ gr_36 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling ins-del multiReplace" id="36" data-gr-id="36">eGCA</g>) which regulates online delivery of licensing and regulatory processes of Directorate General of Civil Aviation.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Government&rsquo;s Policy</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Regional connectivity scheme of UDAN (Ude Desh ka Aam Nagrik)</strong> initiated by the government in 2016 aims to make flying affordable by connecting unserved airports across the country.</li>
<li><strong>NABH Nirman,</strong> announced in the 2018-19 budget, aims to expand airport capacity by more than five times to handle a billion trips in a year.</li>
<li><strong>National Civil Aviation Policy (NCAP)</strong> was framed to boost regional air connectivity, establish an integrated ecosystem to promote tourism and generate employment.</li>
</ul>',
		'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
		'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/aviation-conclave-2019-infrastructure-sector-nabh-nirman-udan-policy-civil'
	],
	(int) 7 => [
		'title' => 'Trade and Development Report 2018 <br>(Power, Platforms and The Free Trade Delusion)</br>',
		'catname' => 'Summary of Important Reports',
		'desc' => '<p><em><strong>Content</strong></em></p>
<ul>
<li><a href="#1">CHAPTER 1. Current Trends And Challenges In The Global Economy</a></li>
<li><a href="#2">CHAPTER 2. The Shifting Contours of Trade Under Hyperglobalization</a></li>
<li><a href="#3">CHAPTER 3. Economic Development In A Digital World: Prospects, Pitfalls And Policy Options</a></li>
<li><a href="#4">CHAPTER 4. Bridging Gaps or Widening Divides: Infrastructure Development And Structural Transformation</a></li>
</ul>
<h1 id="1" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 24px;"><br />Chapter 1: Current Trends And Challenges In The Global Economy</span></h1>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Seven Important Characteristics of the Most Recent Wave of Globalisation<br /><br /></strong>This section describes seven major features of the current era of hyperglobalization and of today&rsquo;s trading system:</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Hyperglobalization (the rapid rise in trade integration)</li>
<li>The dematerialization of globalization (the importance of services)</li>
<li>Democratic globalization (the widespread embrace of openness)</li>
<li>Criss-crossing globalization (the similarity of North-to-South trade and investment flows with flows in the other direction)</li>
<li>The rise of a mega-trader (China), the first since Imperial Britain</li>
<li>The proliferation of regional trade agreements and the imminence of mega-regional ones</li>
<li>The decline of barriers to trade in goods but the continued existence of high barriers to trade in services.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h2>Making Sense of Global Economic Trends</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Recent growth estimates have been more mixed than forecast and show growing unpredictability. For example, euro zone growth in the first quarter of 2018 is estimated to have decelerated to 0.4 per cent relative to the previous quarter, the slowest rate since the third quarter of 2016 (Euro stat, May 2018).</li>
<li>In the United States, annualized GDP growth for the first quarter has been revised down 2.2 per cent, lower than the previous three quarters, while second quarter growth rebounded spectacularly to 4.1 per cent, thanks to increased household spending and a sharp rise in export earnings.</li>
<li>In G20 countries as a group, year-on-year growth in the first quarter of 2018 at 3.9 per cent was still much lower than the 5.4 per cent rates recorded in the middle of 2010, during the short-term recovery just after the crisis.</li>
<li>All this suggests that the recovery observed since 2017 remains uneven and its trajectory uncertain.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Emerging Policy Challenges</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>At the global level, excess liquidity has rendered the system vulnerable to crises. As we have seen, vulnerabilities are particularly serious in the emerging markets. The large foreign capital inflows that drove asset-price inflation also led to the accumulation of stocks of foreign financial capital, brought in by investors with short-term interests, who are likely to exit when access to cheap money in developed countries comes to an end.</li>
<li>But policymakers face other factors that are potent sources of instability. These are:</li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li>The oil price hike</li>
<li>United States protectionism and potential trade wars</li>
</ol>
<h2>Global Trade Patterns</h2>
<h3>Signals from global trade</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>World merchandise trade has picked up recently butstill remains below recent highs.World merchandise exports amounted to $17 trillion in 2017, higher than the $16 trillion recorded in the previous year, but below the $19 trillion level recorded in 2013 and 2014, though this partly reflects the decline of commodity prices from the pre-2014 highs.</li>
<li>Trade measured in volume terms is also showing signs of losing momentum.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Commercial services trade</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>World services exports, which fell in 2015 and were sluggish in 2016, registered significant revival in 2017, from a little less than $5 trillion to $5.3 trillion.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Commodity price trends</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A return of buoyancy to commodity markets is likely to benefit some developing country commodity exporters. The prices of a broad range of commodities are set to rise over 2018, continuing (with some exceptions) the trend observed since January 2016, which is when the decline in commodity prices from 2011 was reversed.</li>
</ul>
<h2>The Drivers of Growth<a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/153drishti_ias_image-1.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/153drishti_ias_image-1.jpg" width="422" height="860" style="float: right;" /></a></h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The strategy of reviving growth through quantitative easing in the advanced economies has had only limited success in spurring income and employment growth. The persistent weakness of effective demand, compounded by post-crisis deleveraging by households and firms, dampened productive investment, while higher income inequality and lower employment rates prevented a strong rebound of consumption.</li>
<li>In the two decades prior to the global crisis, in a context of financial liberalization and tight fiscal policies, two means of stimulating growth operated to differing degrees in the various regions of the world: <em><strong>debt-fuelled consumption expansion and export expansion</strong></em>. A mapping of global growth shows that these have continued to be the major strategies in the post crisis period.</li>
<li>Countries showing a tendency towards a relative reduction of imports are likely to be those dealing with current account deficits, such as France, India, Turkey, the United Kingdom and some countries in Central America and the Caribbean An obvious alternative way for these countries to reduce their external deficits would be for other trading countries that consistently run surpluses to increase their domestic demand and thus their imports, which would in the process contribute to an addition to global demand for exports. Besides helping other countries, this would also facilitate a recovery of global growth.</li>
<li>A second cause for concern is with respect to economies whose aggregate supply growth is mostly driven by net external demand (includes INDIA), Nearly half of them rely heavily on commodity or oil exports.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Regional Growth Trends</h2>
<h3>Developed countries</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Amid signs of a loss of momentum in the global economy, the United States is a partial exception. Europe and Japan, after showing promise of consistently positive and significant rates of growth, have seen growth rates fall. But the United States appears to be staying on course.</li>
<li>The sharp fall in the unemployment rate in the United States, from close to 10 per cent in the middle of the crisis to 4.0 per cent in June 2018, is seen as evidence of the strength of recovery.</li>
<li>Growth in the United Kingdom is expected to be lower in 2018 compared to 2017, with uncertainty over Brexit negotiations adding to structural weaknesses reflected in weak productivity growth and sluggish business investment.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Transition economies</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The transition economies that are members of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) recorded a strong rebound in 2017, with growth of 2 per cent, as compared with 0.2 per cent in 2016.</li>
<li>An important factor underlying the recovery was an increase in commodity prices, especially of oil, which accounts for close to 60 per cent of merchandise exports from the Russian Federation. The spike in oil prices improved both the current account on the balance of payments and the revenues of the Government in the Russian Federation.</li>
<li>The growth dynamics of the transition economies in South-Eastern Europe is determined by the performance of the European Union, which consumes anywhere between half and 80 per cent of exports from these economies. Uncertainties in Europe can affect the pace of GDP growth in this region.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Latin America</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Having benefited from the recovery from recession in two large economies in the region (Argentina and Brazil), the rise in commodity prices, and a consequent 3 per cent improvement in the terms of trade, Latin American economies recorded higher growth in 2017, especially in relation to the slowdown starting 2015. The recovery is expected to continue with GDP growth in Latin America and the Caribbean projected at around 1.7 per cent in 2018, compared to 1.1 per cent in 2017.</li>
</ul>
<h3>West Asia</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Growth in West Asia in 2017 was at its lowest in the post-crisis period, as low oil prices and voluntary production restraints affected income growth in the oil-producing countries, and political conditions adversely affected economic performance in countries like the Syrian Arab Republic and Yemen. Strikingly, GDP in Kuwait and Saudi Arabia contracted by 3.2 and 0.7 per cent respectively.</li>
<li>This, however, is likely to change in 2018, given the sharp increase in oil prices and the positive effect that would have on budgetary revenues and expenditures. However, such gains may be partly neutralized by the need to keep production low to prevent oil prices from returning to their earlier lows.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Developing Africa</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>After having experienced a rise in the average growth rate from 1.7 to 3.0 per cent between 2016 and 2017, developing countries on the African continent are projected to grow at 3.5 per cent in 2018.Amajor factor in this recovery is the commodity price rise, which is crucial for this set of countries given their dependence on commodity exports. The rise in oil prices particularly benefits countries like Algeria, Angola, the Democratic Republic of Congo, Ghana and Nigeria.</li>
<li>Factors driving growth included, besides increased commodity prices, increased infrastructure investments. However, much of the expenditure driving growth was funded with borrowing from abroad in many cases, resulting in a return of the &ldquo;high indebtedness&rdquo; problem.</li>
<li>Nigeria, the largest economy in Africa, saw a return to moderate growth in 2018, after two years of contraction and stagnation.</li>
<li>A fundamental and well-recognized failure of South Africa is its inability to diversify out of mining into manufacturing.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Developing Asia</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>After recording GDP growth rates of 5.7 and 5.5 per cent in 2016 and 2017, the developing countries in Asia are expected to sustain that rate in 2018 as well. This is partly because while growth in China is expected to decelerate from 6.9 in 2017 to 6.7 per cent in 2018, in India it is expected to rise from 6.2 to 7 per cent.</li>
<li>A lending spree by the banking system during the high growth years has led to the accumulation of large volumes of bad debt or non-performing assets in the balance sheets of leading banks. This, besides threatening financial stability, is curbing credit expansion and is likely to adversely affect investment and growth. Further, the Indian rupee is under pressure on foreign exchange markets. Over the first five months of 2018 the currency had depreciated by more than 7.5 per cent relative to the dollar.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Growth in an environment of instability</h3>
<p>The likely emerging scenario, in the absence of quick proactive macro policy measures by governments, is as follows:</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Net outflows of capital, especially of portfolio capital, from emerging markets, are triggered largely by monetary tightening and increases in interest rates in the United States and other advanced countries.</li>
<li>The consequent depreciation of currencies is then worsened by speculative attacks, even as domestic inflation is triggered by the depreciation.</li>
<li>Debt service payments valued in domestic currency, on substantially increased corporate debt, rise sharply, precipitating default and bankruptcies.</li>
<li>This further depresses investment precisely at a time when it was expected to revive.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Way forward</h3>
<p>In an interdependent global economy, inward-looking policies do not offer a way forward; substantial and coordinated shifts in macroeconomic strategy appear to be the only way out of this trap</p>
<h2>A &ldquo;Trade War&rdquo; Scenario</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In case of Escalation of trade tensions between the United States, and Canada, China, Japan, Mexico, The Republic of Korea and the European Union.</li>
<li>The direct impact of actual tariff increases on the economies involved appears negligible &ndash; for example, recent United States tariffs hit $34 billion of imports from China, or less 0.02 per cent of the GDP of the United States.</li>
<li>However, the indirect consequences of a &ldquo;trade war&rdquo; have raised more serious concerns, with most assessments focusing on supply-side effects such as the possible disruption of global supply chains and the risk that technology flows across countries may become restricted.</li>
<li>Seen through the lens of these projections the most serious effect of a trade war may be to trigger a fall in aggregate demand.</li>
<li>The external imbalance of the United States is expected to worsen, given the larger fiscal deficit and moderate &ldquo;releveraging&rdquo; by the private sector.</li>
<li>China is assumed to continue its shift towards greater reliance on domestic demand.</li>
<li>In the trade war scenario, the tariff escalation triggers downward pressures on wages and generates uncertainty around the path of economic policy. This damages aggregate demand, economic growth and, ultimately, trade activity and financial stability.</li>
</ul>
<p></p>
<h1 id="2" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 24px;">Chapter 2: The Shifting Contours of Trade Under Hyperglobalization</span></h1>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The hyper globalized world is one where money and power have become inseparable and where capital &ndash; whether tangible or intangible, long term or short term, industrial or financial &ndash; has extricated itself from regulatory oversight and restraint and muted the voice and influence of other social stakeholders with an interest in the direction of public policy.</li>
<li>Mainstream economists bear part of the responsibility for the current state of affairs. Ignoring their own analytical nuances and the subtleties of economic history, they remain biased in favour of unqualified free trade when it comes to communicating with policymakers and broader audiences (see e.g. Driskill, 2012; Rodrik, 2017, 2018).</li>
<li>The mainstream narrative pitches &ldquo;comparative advantage&rdquo; as a &ldquo;win-win&rdquo; boost to economic efficiency and social welfare, without specifying the conditions under which such beneficial outcomes can occur or how any negative effects could be abrogated.</li>
<li>There is no doubt that the new protectionist tide, together with the declining spirit of international cooperation, poses significant challenges for governments around the world. However, the call to double down on &ldquo;free trade&rdquo; provides a cover for a regime of footloose capital, concentrated market power and the capture of public policy by powerful economic interests.</li>
<li>Fighting isolationism effectively requires recognizing that many of the rules adopted to promote &ldquo;free trade&rdquo; have not promoted a rules-based system that is inclusive, transparent and development friendly.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Trade Dynamics After the Second World War</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Between the end of the Second World War and the global financial crisis (GFC), the growth of world trade consistently outpaced that of global output.</li>
<li>The rise and fall of the Golden Age: 1950&ndash;1986</li>
<li>Between 1950 and 1973, world trade grew at an average annual rate of nearly 8 per cent, amid strong declines of trade costs of all kinds resulting from peace dividends, improvements in transport, a fast pace of investment and rapid productivity growth, a measured drop in tariffs, and a stable international monetary system.</li>
<li>Most of the increase in trade flows reflected rising intra- and inter-industry trade among developed countries and with a strong regional dimension. Trade rules, consequently, were designed by a small club of relatively wealthy converging economies, to consolidate broad economic gains coming from outside the trading system (Rose, 2004), tolerance of the trade practices of (mainly developing) countries who were not part of the club but with little concern to address their particular challenges.</li>
<li>The asymmetric structure of international trade and lagging growth performance of most developing countries fuelled growing concerns among many of their policymakers over biases in the rules of the trading system. It also underpinned the idea of &ldquo;unequal exchange&rdquo;, which argued that the structure of world trade was responsible for the persistent inequality between developed and developing economies.</li>
<li>Under pressure from a series of internal and external shocks, the 1973&ndash;1986 period was difficult for advanced and developing countries alike, except for oil exporters, who enjoyed significant terms of-trade gains, As a result, the annual growth of trade almost halved in the 1973&ndash;1986 period compared to 1950&ndash;1973.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Hyperglobalization: 1986&ndash;present</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Starting from the mid-1980s, a new phase of trade expansion took place. In contrast with the two previous post-war periods included in figure 2.1 &ndash; the Golden Age and the subsequent turbulent decade &ndash; this new round of globalization was marked by very fast acceleration of trade, especially in some parts of the developing world.</li>
<li>This period coincides with the beginning of the Uruguay Round and came in the wake of several important political shifts. It occurred when many developing countries were still adjusting to the debt crisis by abandoning import-substitution industrialization (ISI) and turning to more export-oriented strategies based on liberalized imports.</li>
<li>It also coincided with the end of the East&ndash;West divide and the rise of a &ldquo;new world order&rdquo; dominated by liberal ideology. On the supply side, the erosion of organized labour and the flexibilization of labour markets, along with the continued spread of technological progress (containerization, information and communication technology (ICT), etc.), facilitated the fragmentation of production along GVCs and the coordination of complex processes across long distances, with the resulting cross-border movement of inputs instrumental in boosting trade. This was supported by the proliferation of free trade agreements (FTAs) and bilateral investment treaties (BITs) and subsequently by the accession of China to the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2001, which lowered the cost of labour by enlarging the globally available reserve army of workers.</li>
<li>The trade acceleration was particularly strong in East and South-East Asia, most of all the with the growth acceleration and structural transformation in China. This then spilled over to the rest of the developing world, mainly in the form of boosted demand for raw materials.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Trade-Charged Structural Change: Diverging Paths Among Developing Regions</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The &ldquo;rise of the South&rdquo; in international trade has been a much-cited feature of hyperglobalization, disrupting the dominant pattern of North&ndash;North trade in the previous era of managed globalization, and establishing a landscape in which North&ndash;South and South&ndash;South trade have assumed greater weight. BRICS6 have become symbolic of this changing landscape but GVCs are seen as its great disruptors.</li>
<li>On the one hand, the first-tier NIEs (newly industrializing economy) and China display clear trends towards technological upgrading, even though questions remain about the extent to which this has benefited workers employed at the assembly stage in manufacturing GVCs . By contrast, Africa and West Asia showed limited progress as their exports remain extremely concentrated in commodities, with hardly any increase in shares of technology-intensive manufactures, regardless of their labour skill levels.</li>
<li>This suggests that the rapid development of China (and more generally East and South-East Asia) has not triggered significant positive structural changes in the export structures of other developing regions; rather, it has intensified their role as providers of commodities. This need not be a negative outcome, if the revenues from such exports are used to finance domestic economic diversification and technological upgrading. But such a push typically requires systematic industrial policies in a context of rising domestic demand. In practice, such examples are not that common. By contrast, intraregional trade seems to have the greatest potential in terms of providing support to move up the ladder, confirming the validity of previous UNCTAD calls for strengthening regional trade (UNCTAD, 2013).</li>
</ul>
<h2>Trade and Inequality Under Hyperglobalization</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Trade under hyperglobalization, and the associated expansion of GVCs, is often pitched as widening the opportunities for inclusive growth and shared prosperity.</li>
<li>The underlying assumption is that because GVCs allow developing countries to focus on individual links in the chain, their firms can integrate with the world economy &ldquo;on a shoestring&rdquo; without facing the large risks (and costs) incurred by investing in all the tasks required for producing the finished product or services (e.g. World Bank et al., 2017).</li>
<li>According to this view, developing countries can thereby more easily reap the benefits of their major comparative advantage: abundant cheap labour. Following this logic, such integration in the global economy should lead to a reduction of inequality in the South as demand for unskilled labour increases.</li>
</ul>
<h3>GVCS, jobs off shoring, processing trade and income polarization in manufacturing</h3>
<p>Reality is, that trade patterns under hyperglobalization contributed to polarizing domestic income and wealth distribution not only in the North but also in the South, thus exacerbating domestic economic inequalities.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Prevalence of oligopolistic enterprises in exports of manufactures and how export market structures can affect income distribution. Buying practices of lead firms can lead to shaving markups and cost cutting by suppliers that leave them unable to innovate and resistant to improvements in wages or labour standards&rdquo;.</li>
<li>In developing countries, the negative impact of international trade on inequality was partly the result of the proliferation of special processing trade regimes and EPZs(Export Processing Zones). Many countries created regimes favoring exporters, with the objective of attracting or preserving investment, production and jobs on their shores. The associated risk, however, is that such regimes merely subsidize labour-intensive assembly work or, more precisely, subsidize the organization of low-cost and low-productivity assembly work by large exporters or foreign TNCs in control of GVCs.</li>
<li>Evidence accumulating in recent years, particularly from experiences in China, points to the limited benefits of such policies for the broader economy and their negative effects on income distribution. This meant that, while China could count on foreign TNCs to integrate its economy into GVCs, it could not rely on them to significantly upgrade the skills and the pay of its workforce or bolster its productive capacities.</li>
<li>The ongoing success of China at bolstering its productive capacities &ndash; thus slowly breaking out of the trap of processing trade and moving up the value ladder &ndash; has crucially relied on its capacity to claim and use policy space to actively leverage trade through targeted industrial and other policies aiming at raising domestic value added in manufacturing exports (Poon, 2014, 2018). It has also relied on the ability of the Chinese authorities to develop independent financing mechanisms and acquire control over foreign assets, which are being perceived by developed countries as a threat to their own business interests (e.g. USTR, 2018).</li>
</ul>
<h3>Concentration in export markets, intangible barriers to competition and corporate rents</h3>
<p>To an even larger extent than domestic markets, global exports today are dominated by very large companies, most of them TNC.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Recent evidence from aggregated firm-level data on goods exports (excluding the oil sector, as well as services) shows that, within the very restricted circle of exporting firms, the top 1 per cent accounted for 57 per cent of country exports on average in 2014. Moreover, while the share of the top 5 per cent exceeded 80 per cent of country export revenues on average, the top 25 per cent accounted for virtually all country exports.</li>
<li>The Implications include both the polarizing effects of trade on income distribution resulting from concentration and monopolistic behaviour of large firms, as well as plausible negative macro-financial externalities that harm the potential for inclusive development.</li>
<li>This is because corporate rents (and thus higher profits) also arise out of strategies aimed at instrumentalizing other actors, by lobbying policymakers, buying out competitors, sharing markets, collusion, blocking new entrants, etc.</li>
<li>Paradoxically, even as tangible barriers to trade imposed by governments, such as tariffs and quotas, have been declining over the last 30 years or so, intangible barriers to competition rooted in &ldquo;free trade&rdquo; treaties and erected by large firms themselves have surged, as they exploit the increased legal protection of intellectual property and the broadening scope for intangible intra-firm trade</li>
<li>As the World Trade Organization (WTO, 2012) notes, &ldquo;many products that used to be traded as low-technology goods or commodities now contain a higher proportion of invention and design in their value&rdquo;, that is, protected intellectual property content. In short, knowledge intensive intangible assets are valuable because they ensure a certain degree of market power, not because they represent an inherent and benevolent force for innovation and technological progress.</li>
<li>IPR charges are merely one of the many forms of more widespread profit shifting within companies or groups, that weigh negatively on public finances and collective wage bargaining in many countries. Indeed, the largest recipient country (the United States) is simultaneously the victim of the most massive IPR-related corporate tax avoidance by TNCs &ldquo;trading&rdquo; intangibles.</li>
<li>This increase in profits of large firms has been a major driver of global functional inequality, associated with declines in the global labour income share during the last two decades. Market concentration increases as industries become progressively dominated by &ldquo;superstar&rdquo; firms with high profits and low shares of labour in firm value added, and as the importance of superstar firms increases, the aggregate labour share tends to fall.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Unequalizing Trade: Macroeconomic Risks and Development Policy Challenges</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The belief that international trade can be an &ldquo;engine for development&rdquo; and help establish an inclusive growth path, as recently affirmed in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development , is neither new nor unreasonable.</li>
<li>Yet, these objectives should not lead to simplistic advocacy of <em><strong>free trade</strong></em>. When UNCTAD was convened for the first time in 1964, policymakers from the South were concerned that their countries were increasingly being marginalized by an international trading system that added to polarizing pressures in the global economy.</li>
<li>More than half a century later, and despite myriad changes in the volume, direction and governance of cross-border trade, such concerns have surfaced once again, in advanced-economies as well as in developing economies.</li>
<li>It is evident that increased trade under hyperglobalization has created opportunities for structural change, but only in very limited parts of the Global South. Besides the first-tier NIEs and more recently China, only a few countries have managed to leverage trade as a means for mobilizing and reallocating productive factors away from primary commodities towards higher value added manufacturing and service activities.</li>
<li>These outcomes pose several macroeconomic risks and development challenges, which are starkly evident today. The main concern is probably the negative impact that trade under hyperglobalization has had on aggregate demand.</li>
<li>Facing weaker prospective sales in a context of weak aggregate demand and compounded by the post-crisis turn to austerity, large corporations have cut back on investment, further depressing aggregate demand and contributing to slower trade in recent years.</li>
<li>In such an environment, incentives are strong for seeking to boost profitability through means other than raising productivity, such as intensifying international competition between workers and between governments to reduce labour and tax costs, crushing or buying up competitors to build up market dominance and increase markups, etc. The unfortunate truth is that the attempts of individual TNCs to enhance their own market position through such strategies only makes the broader economic system more fragile and vulnerable, since together they lead to more inequality, under-consumption, debt and, consequently, macroeconomic vulnerability.</li>
<li>This focus on employment has largely been lost in the period of hyperglobalization, and also finds little reflection in the &ldquo;trade&rdquo; and &ldquo;economic cooperation&rdquo; agreements that have dominated the landscape.</li>
</ul>
<p></p>
<h1 id="3" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 24px;">Chapter 3: Economic Development In A Digital World:<br />Prospects, Pitfalls And Policy Options</span></h1>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Digital technologies have already transformed how people communicate, learn, work and shop. They are also changing the geography of economic activity through their impact on corporate strategy, investment behaviour and trade flows.</li>
<li>From a development perspective, the promise of digitalization is that it will open new sectors, promote new markets, boost innovation and generate the productivity gains needed to lift living standards in developing countries. Fulfilling this promise of a new digital future will, for many developing countries, require an ambitious programme of infrastructure support and skills training.</li>
<li>Today&rsquo;s hyperglobalized world has become more unequal, unstable and insecure: rent extraction has become an acceptable feature of doing business at the top of the corporate food chain and unchecked competition has made for precarious working conditions for many at the bottom. As a result, the gains from technological progress and open economies have been captured by a small portion of society, while their costs have been carried by an increasingly frustrated majority.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Digital Technologies In Value Chains: Potential Opportunities For Income Generation And Upgrading</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Digital technologies are based on information that is recorded in binary code of combinations of the digits 0 and 1, also called &ldquo;bits&rdquo;, which represent words and images (Negroponte, 1995).</li>
<li>The distribution of value added and upgrading in traditional value chains</li>
<li>Since many developing countries have faced difficulties in achieving the policy, their place in Global Value Chains has tended to be located on the lower portions rather than higher.</li>
<li>However, in the absence of solid evidence on significant &ldquo;spillovers&rdquo; from participation in value chains, policymakers should also continue to look for ways to establish domestic forward and backward linkages that facilitate a rising share of domestically generated value added, encourage more widespread transfers of technology and diffusion of knowledge, and support economic diversification and upgrading towards higher value added activities that rely on more sophisticated technology and skill sets.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Digitalization: Potential impacts on the manufacturing process</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>What may be most significant of all is that digital technologies enable more decentralized and flexible production and distribution, reducing some of the scale economies that dominated the era of mass production. This can result in a &ldquo;hyper-segmentation of markets, activities and technologies&rdquo; whereby companies of varying sizes can respond to and accommodate multiple demand segments, and small producers can cater to niche markets that need not be in geographical proximity.</li>
<li>The use of new digital technologies may, therefore, allow developing countries to add more value in their production stages, whether or not the final product is for export or domestic consumption.</li>
<li>However, this depends crucially not only on available infrastructure but on access to data and a supportive ecosystem.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Potential Impacts on Income Generation</h2>
<h3>The Production Segment</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Much of the debate on digitalization has focused on the use of industrial robots in the production segment of the manufacturing process.</li>
<li>The Report suggested that, for now at least, robot-based automation per se does not invalidate the traditional role of industrialization as a development strategy for lower-income countries moving into manufacturing activities (such as clothing and leather sectors) dominated by manual and routine tasks, although in countries already experiencing premature deindustrialization and low rates of investment, the danger of getting trapped in these low-value-added sectors is likely to increase.</li>
<li>The small shares across all economies could indicate that digitalization is little more than a media hype. But these small numbers could also be a result of the slack in global demand following the global financial crisis, which has been a key factor holding back productive.</li>
</ul>
<h3>The Pre And Post-Production Segments</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The economic benefits of owning data in terms of transforming it into a profitable asset increase with the volume of data. This gives an advantage to first movers. They are most easily able to scale up their initial investment in data intelligence and analytics, thereby increasing the value of their data and associated knowledge base.</li>
<li>Such first-mover advantages underline both the urgency with which developing countries need to act and the difficulties and associated policy challenges related to their engaging in activities in the post-production segment of digitized value chains.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Potential Impact on Governance and Distributional Outcomes</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>More recently, as value chains have entered (and reconfigured) manufacturing sectors and as developing countries have provided more links in these chains, the international division of labour has become more fragmented, employment relations more fractured and governance arrangements more complex.</li>
<li>At the same time, large corporations have shifted their attention to &ldquo;core competencies&rdquo; and increasingly employed a range of financial instruments, such as share buy-backs and mergers and acquisitions, to increase their &ldquo;value&rdquo; while cost containment, through outsourcing, work intensification, segmented labour markets and insecure supplier contracts, has become the principal strategy in managing the production process.</li>
<li>Another way in which digitization is impacting distribution is through the emergence of platform monopolies, in which the key strategic asset of the lead firm is control and use of digitized data to organize and mediate transactions between the various actors in the chain.</li>
<li>The domination of the United States is evident in social media and content platforms, with the top seven such firms all originating there.</li>
<li>The only exception is China, which has been able to expand its own firms by preventing the global firms from entering its market.</li>
<li>Similarly, Internet search platforms are dominated by United States firms, other than Baidu in China and Yandex from the Russian Federation.</li>
<li>This is also true for mobile ecosystems, with three United States-based firms completely dominant: Android with 81.7 per cent market share, iOS with 17.9 per cent and Windows with 0.3 per cent of the global market. Internet of Things (IoT) or industrial digital platforms are similarly dominated by companies from the United States and Europe.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Adapting Economic Policies to a Digital World</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>While new digital technologies may provide additional impetus to income generation in developing countries, they also pose challenges because of the potential for greater monopoly control in some areas and the distributional implications of corporate rent-seeking.</li>
<li>International cooperation, including in the form of South&ndash;South cooperation, is particularly relevant for overcoming digital divides and addressing fiscal and regulatory issues.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Facilitating integration into a digital economy and ensuring an equitable sharing of its benefits</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Digital infrastructure and digital capabilities: Basic conditions for integrating into a digital world</li>
<li>Industrial policy</li>
<li>Innovation policy</li>
<li>Regulatory policies</li>
<li>Control and use of data</li>
</ul>
<h3>A. Digital Infrastructure and Digital Capabilities: Basic Conditions for Integrating into a Digital World</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A digital economy is built on digital infrastructure and digital capabilities. Three broad interrelated components of digital infrastructure which can be identified are:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Networks</li>
<li>Software</li>
<li>Data</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>● And digital capabilities are needed to use them effectively.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Digital Infrastructure</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Networks</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Over the past two decades, countries have been steadily building their digital networks (i.e. ICT and broadband infrastructure) as the principal tool for collecting and transmitting Information flows.</li>
<li>This ICT infrastructure forms the base of the digital infrastructure as it provides Internet access to the population, while broadband infrastructure helps in delivering large amounts of data at a much faster speed.</li>
<li>Internet access and connectivity dominated by private Internet service providers. However, remote areas were not adequately served by private companies. Since the universality of broadband infrastructure is a prerequisite for a more equitable digital economy, this points to the need for enhanced public investment in broadband infrastructure in most developing countries.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Software</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Its use across a full range of economic activities, with increasing emphasis on access through a cloud computing infrastructure.</li>
<li>Cloud computing combines software power with network power allowing quick, wide and deep global spread of relatively inexpensive cutting-edge technologies.</li>
<li>However, cloud applications provide its owners immense power, as dependencies, for example, global cloud applications have provided Google, Facebook, Uber, etc. the power to become the virtual control panels for reorganizing entire sectors.</li>
<li>This creates a policy challenge for developing countries whose national antitrust legislation may not be adequate to address the cross-sectoral market power increasingly held by such multinational companies.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Data</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>This is, arguably, the most important component of the digital infrastructure, providing the basis for generating huge profit streams and potentially changing the relative positions of countries in terms of their shares in global production, consumption, investment and international trade.</li>
<li>Many observers have termed &ldquo;data&rdquo; the &ldquo;new oil&rdquo;, not only because they have to be extracted and processed from an initially unrefined state, but because processed data can also give monopolistic powers to its owners. Indeed, because (unlike oil) data are not a finite resource, the ability to exclude competitors from access can generate even more monopoly power and rent-seeking behaviour.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p>The challenges faced by developing countries in ensuring such digital infrastructure are evident from the still large gaps in most developing countries.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Broadband speed is a crucial determinant of the potential for digitalization and related business, and it remains relatively much slower in most developing countries. Reducing these large infrastructure deficits is a huge task that will require large investments.</li>
<li>In addition to digital infrastructure, building a digital economy obviously requires the presence of supportive physical infrastructure and institutions, of which continuous power connections and access to banking and financial institutions are obviously crucial.</li>
<li>Due to rapid advancement of digital technologies there is a growing &ldquo;digital skill gap&rdquo; which is being felt by both developed and developing countries. To develop digital skills, efforts have to be made by the developing countries at various levels: introducing digital education in schools and universities, upskilling the digital skills of the existing workforce, running special basic and advanced skill development programmes for the youth and older persons</li>
</ul>
<h3>Digital Capabilities</h3>
<p>These are also referred to as <strong><em>digital skills or digital competence</em></strong>.</p>
<p><strong>LO-ITU (2017) describe four kinds of such skills:</strong></p>
<ol>
<li>basic digital skills, related to the effective use of technology, including web research, online communications, etc.;</li>
<li>soft skills necessary to ensure collaborative work among professionals;</li>
<li>advanced digital skills related to technology development such as coding, software and app development, etc.; and</li>
<li>digital entrepreneurship which includes digital skills required by entrepreneurs for strategic planning, market research, business analysis,</li>
</ol>
<p>All these should ideally be part of an overall national strategy of building digital skills for the twenty-first century.</p>
<h3>B. Industrial Policy</h3>
<p>Two elements of the changing dynamics of the world economy may be crucial for the effectiveness of industrial policies:</p>
<ol>
<li>The move towards a digital economy and its associated increased systemic interactions between innovation, education, production and services activities;</li>
<li>The increased weight of developing countries in the global economy, which may allow for a rebalancing of external and domestic markets as destinations of developing countries&rsquo; production activities.</li>
</ol>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Industrial policies for digitalization must seek to exploit the potential of using new technologies for transformational purposes to create and shape new products and new markets, as well as to compensate for the job destruction that the application of such technologies may cause.&nbsp;</li>
<li>A digital strategy must also adapt to the changed structure of finance for investment in the digital economy. Contrary to tangible assets &ndash; such as buildings, machines or particular plots of land &ndash; intangible assets, such as data, software, market analysis, organizational design, patents, copyrights and the like, tend to be unique or most valuable supporting investment in intangibles may well imply an increased role for development banks as sources of finance or of specialized financing vehicles.</li>
</ul>
<h3>C. Innovation Policy</h3>
<p>The World Intellectual Property Organization&rsquo;s global innovation index shows that a few developing countries have caught up on certain innovation variables, even though significant divides remain.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Digitalization may provide specific opportunities for frugal innovation by developing country firms because they tend to reduce the cost of innovation.</li>
<li>Such customization of new digital technologies can be related to the idea of frugal innovations, which are those that provide &ldquo;new functionality at lower cost&rdquo;.</li>
<li>Similarly, the digital economy may also open up new possibilities for more reverse innovation, which refers to ideas, technologies and products that may be generated in developing countries but are subsequently used by firms from developed countries.</li>
<li>Digital innovations increasingly rely on big-data analytics and other digital technologies. Therefore, policies designed to prevent monopolistic control and to ensure that small and medium producers and potential innovators have affordable access to such data, are obviously important.</li>
<li>In addition to a sizeable increase in R&amp;D spending and the size of in-house design departments, enhanced skilled labour migration in the form of both intellectual returnees and skilled expatriates from developed countries could provide substantial support to developing countries&rsquo; more active innovation policy.</li>
<li>While returnees appear to have played a crucial role for example in the development of the photovoltaic industry in China (Luo et al., 2017)</li>
<li>Expatiates have been instrumental in creating the designs for automobile production in developing countries such as Brazil, <em><strong>India</strong></em> and Morocco, as well as in Romania.</li>
<li>There, designers have focused on the functionalities and price ranges that would appeal to customers in developing countries, as well as to relatively low-income customers in developed countries.</li>
</ul>
<h3>D. Regulatory Policies</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The digital economy creates significant new regulatory policy challenges because the network effects and economies of scale associated with digitalization can cause rising inequality and generate barriers to market entry.</li>
<li>First-mover advantages in the form of benefits from controlling and scaling large volumes of data tend to create a few highly profitable large firms and &ldquo;winner-takes-most&rdquo; concerns.</li>
<li>The resulting increases in market concentration may sizeably augment the financial power of a few leading firms and cause increased rent-seeking, anticompetitive practices and attempts to block actual or potential competitors.</li>
<li>This means that established competition and antitrust policies may be unsuited to the digital economy.</li>
<li>The overwhelming control over digital platforms by a few firms, mostly based in the United States, the United Kingdom and some other European countries, points to the need for active consideration of policies to prevent anticompetitive behaviour by such firms, as well as potential misuse of data that are collected in the process.</li>
<li>It also provides an inkling of the difficulties associated with developing countries wishing to break into these areas.</li>
<li>But for developing countries an additional concern could be the concentration of profits generated in such platforms by the companies that are largely based in the North.</li>
<li>Such <em><strong>super-platforms</strong></em> (companies that dominate the digital landscape like Google, Apple and Amazon) are increasingly using algorithms based on big data to drive away competition.</li>
<li>The algorithms monitor the price changes and swiftly react to competitor&rsquo;s price reduction, similarly it also follows price increases when sustainable, such as when others follow in a timely manner, so that all competitors raise prices and profit together leading to an outcome not much different from that arrived by collusion.</li>
<li>This makes it extremely difficult to hold the superplatforms liable for the pricing decisions of their self-learning algorithms, which may transfer wealth from consumers to sellers.</li>
<li>Although the super-platforms compete, they can also become &ldquo;frenemies&rdquo; to maximize joint profits and drive away competition.22 This interdependence of super-platforms can severely hinder innovations as companies know that they cannot effectively reach consumers unless admitted by super-platforms.</li>
<li>There are other ways in which such digital platform companies can slip through regulatory cracks.</li>
</ul>
<p>However, since the existing digital platforms are changing the competitive landscape, there is a need to regulate the digital platforms in order to provide developing countries&rsquo; firms/platforms with an opportunity to compete with the existing platforms and avail themselves of new opportunities in the digital world.</p>
<p>Developing country governments need to be aware of these concerns before signing on to agreements that could effectively reduce their national sovereignty and policy space in the digital world.</p>
<h3>E. Control and Use of Data</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>All companies, and not just digital platforms, need to be able to collect and analyse data for innovation and efficiency gains.</li>
<li>However, access to and control of data can be, indeed has long been, a source of market power and can create barriers to entry for new players. Policymakers have had to strike a balance between these conflicting pressures. Perhaps the single biggest difference with firms and platforms in the digital economy is that controlling data is the business model.</li>
<li>For countries to be able to build their data infrastructures and use their data to provide efficient public goods and services to their citizens, it is important for the countries to control their data and be able to use/share their data and regulate its flow.</li>
<li>Doing so help them design policies for developing data processing skills in the pre-production and postproduction stages as well as encourage customized production.</li>
</ul>
<p>Data is not a homogeneous product and there is a need, to have a clear distinction between personal and non-personal data.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Personal Data - data on the consumers&rsquo; behavioural patterns or education data, transport data or health data of a country, which requires to be regulated and protected.</li>
<li>Rest, non-personal data needs to be allowed to flow freely within the country</li>
</ul>
<p>Developing countries need to retain their data sovereignty to build their digital skills and avoid rules which restrict their ability to monitor the flow of their national data.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>To encourage domestic linkages of foreign investments and to develop domestic digital capacities and digital infrastructure to upgrade in value chains, many governments are using localization measures, akin to what they used when they designed their FDI policies</li>
<li>In the context of the digital economy, localization measures include requirements such as locating servers and/or computing facilities within the national boundaries which can encourage foreign firms to invest in domestic digital infrastructure and allow local authorities to enforce national laws and regulations.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>For example, the Decree on Information Technology Services 2013 in Viet Nam required every digital service or website to locate at least one server in Viet Nam.</li>
<li>In the Philippines, a draft administrative order in 2014 required government agencies to buy cloud services from the Philippine Government&rsquo;s cloud.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Such policies can be adopted to promote</strong></p>
<ol>
<li>Local digital capabilities;</li>
<li>Infant industry protection;</li>
<li>Avoiding long-term dependency on foreign-owned and located digital infrastructure;</li>
<li>To protect privacy of the citizens, their legal jurisdictions and</li>
<li>National cyber sovereignty.</li>
</ol>
<h3>Trade and Investment Rules in the Digital Era</h3>
<p><strong>Concerns</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A<a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/425drishti_ias_image2.png" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/425drishti_ias_image2.png" style="float: right;" width="341" height="207" /></a>greements, like the Trans-Pacific Partnership (TPP), include binding rules on governments&rsquo; ability to restrict use or location of computing facilities inside the national boundaries. Some of the proposals on e-commerce in the WTO include binding rules on cross-border data transfers and localization restrictions.</li>
<li>Such rules, being put forward as part of progressively expanding e-commerce chapters in free trade agreements (FTAs), may limit the ability of the governments to gain from FDI to build their national digital technological capacity and skills.</li>
<li>Localization rules, as discussed in the previous section, have been extensively used by the developed countries in the earlier phase of digitalization and are still being used. Some of the rules in existing trade agreements, as well as those under negotiation, restrict the flexibilities of the signatory governments to adopt these localization measures.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Way Forward</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>To keep up in the ongoing technological revolution, developing countries are in urgent need of international technology transfers (ITT) from the developed countries and other developing countries which have been able to develop advanced digital technologies.</li>
<li>The new digital technologies using AI, robots and IoT can potentially help developing countries to upgrade in value chains by increasing the digital content in the production stages.</li>
<li>For digital technology transfers in developing countries, policies around source-code sharing can play an important role in encouraging ITT and developing national digital skills.</li>
<li>While technology transfers need to be encouraged, developing countries should be proactive in increasing the digital content in their production processes, by supporting more domestically produced digital services like ICT services and telecommunication services in their manufacturing or by using digital technologies to digitalize their production. Digitalized products refer to those products which were earlier exported physically but are now being electronically transmitted, for example, films, printed matter, sound and media, software and video games.</li>
</ul>
<p>However, technology transfers from foreign firms by hosting FDI has rarely happened automatically and developing countries have always used targeted policies to encourage technology spillovers, through joint ventures, technology licensing, technology transfer clauses in their investment agreements, training arrangements.</p>
<p>The bottom line is that the potential for development provided by digital technologies can be easily eclipsed if developing countries are not given the flexibility and policy space to design their economic and industrial policies and national regulatory frameworks to promote digital infrastructure and digital capacities.</p>
<h3>South&ndash;South and Triangular Cooperation for a Digital World</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Digital cooperation at the regional level can be added to the ongoing regional integration initiatives in the South, including in Africa.</li>
<li>UNTCAD suggested a ten-point South&ndash; South digital cooperation agenda which includes:</li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li>Building a data economy.</li>
<li>Building cloud computing infrastructure.</li>
<li>Strengthening broadband infrastructure.</li>
<li>Promoting e-commerce in the region.</li>
<li>Promoting regional digital payments.</li>
<li>Progressing on single digital market in the region.</li>
<li>Sharing experiences on e-government.</li>
<li>Forging partnerships for building smart cities.</li>
<li>Promoting digital innovations and technologies.</li>
<li>Building statistics for measuring digitization.</li>
</ol>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>An important step towards digital cooperation is to build a regional data economy among neighbouring countries. This can help each country as they can use the big data of the region to develop AI for manufacturing customized digital products. However, to build a regional data economy, countries first need to <em><strong>"own"</strong></em> their data.&nbsp;</li>
<li>Ownership of data at the national level by governments will allow the countries to decide with whom to share their data.</li>
<li>For all countries in a region to have a level playing field in terms of access to opportunities arising from cloud computing, it is important that all countries within a regional bloc have a similar broadband ecosystem.</li>
</ul>
<h2>The Way Forward for Developing Countries</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The simple truth for the governments of developing counties is that realizing the potential benefits from a digital world will be difficult, and that ensuring those benefits have a wide social reach will be more difficult still. It requires ambitious policies in a wide range of areas that must be employed in a coherent way.</li>
<li>Digital preparedness in many developing countries will require international support and cooperation;</li>
<li>Some of the key policies that can help developing countries face the challenges posed by the digital revolution and increase their developmental gains are as follows:</li>
</ul>
<ol>
<li><strong>Building digital infrastructure.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Devising national data regulatory policies.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Regulating digital platforms and developing national marketing platforms.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Taxing the super-firms.</strong><br />Taxing these firms where their activities are based rather than where they declare their headquarters will help in redistributing their rents and increase government revenues.</li>
<li><strong>Drawing up digital industrial policies.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Harnessing digital start-ups.</strong><br />While many developing countries are encouraging digital start-ups as the primary source of digital innovations, there is a need for a more comprehensive policy with respect to digital start-ups, which prevents the gains of innovations flowing out of the country. Direct investment by governments in corporate equities can sustain digital innovations, enhance use of advanced technology and promote reverse innovations.</li>
<li><strong>Developing digital competencies.</strong></li>
</ol>
<p></p>
<h1 id="4" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: 24px;">Chapter 4: Bridging Gaps or Widening Divides:<br />Infrastructure Development And Structural Transformation</span></h1>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Aschauer&rsquo;s influential work (1989) found evidence for the widely accepted wisdom that &ldquo;roads lead to prosperity&rdquo; (see also Deng, 2013). Looking at the economy of the United States from 1948 to 1985, he concluded that infrastructure investments led to productivity increases, finding that a 10 per cent rise in infrastructure stock over time was associated with a 4 per cent increase in productivity. The study even showed that the converse also held: declining infrastructure investment from 1970 to 1985 was responsible for declining output per capita over the same period in the United States.</li>
<li>This chapter addresses the role of infrastructure in the process of structural transformation as its central question.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Infrastructure Matters: Conceptual Issues and Historical Lessons</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Types of infrastructure</li>
<li>Infrastructure and the virtuous circle of growth</li>
<li>Historical experiences</li>
</ul>
<h3>Types of Infrastructure</h3>
<p>Infrastructure encompasses a broad category of goods and services that involve investments in both the social and physical stock of capital.</p>
<p>Hirschman, defined infrastructure as those &ldquo;basic services without which primary, secondary and tertiary productive activities cannot function&rdquo;</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Networked Infrastructure Includes:</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Energy</li>
<li>Water</li>
<li>Public Transport</li>
<li>Telecommunications Sector</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The infrastructure services dealing with water provision include
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>dams and hydropower;</li>
<li>water supply;</li>
<li>wastewater, sanitation and water quality;</li>
<li>storm water systems; irrigation and drainage;</li>
<li>river and coastal works;</li>
<li>pipelines and canals; and</li>
<li>natural water infrastructure</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Transport Infrastructure includes: roads, railways, airports, seaports, bridges, waterways and tramways.</li>
<li>Like energy, transportation infrastructure calls for large-scale investment projects and have a long gestation period.</li>
<li>But its provision dramatically increases both economic productivity and quality of life.</li>
<li>Like in rural areas, access to affordable energy can boost farm productivity because of its uses in pumping water for irrigation, mechanization, agricultural processing and post-harvest storage.</li>
<li>An example of the strong network externalities associated with infrastructure comes from telecommunications infrastructure. For example, Hjort and Poulsen (2017) report that new submarine telecom cables in different parts of Africa brought the arrival of fast Internet, leading to the emergence of technology start-ups and a manufacturing sector that produces Internet-capable devices to serve the region, an improvement of supply chain coordination enhancing productivity in manufacturing and agribusiness, and the creation of jobs in the ICT sector and elsewhere.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Infrastructure and the Virtuous Circle of Growth</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>There are ways in which infrastructure spending can drive productivity and growth.</li>
<li>Industrial development was central to Hirschman&rsquo;s idea that developing countries should pursue <em><strong>"unbalanced growth"</strong></em> with productive resources targeted at a few sectors.</li>
<li>This was based on the belief that the resulting disruption would not only stimulate further private investment in the favoured sectors but would help promote various organizational and other capabilities whose shortage might otherwise curtail the growth process.</li>
<li>Hirschman believed that this framework would provide the best guide for the efficient sequencing of infrastructure spending.</li>
<li>The government spending on infrastructure investment boosts aggregate demand, potentially sparking broader-based output growth through scale economies which feed into productivity increases. This typically leads to greater private sector investment, and by extension, also raises private demand for physical capital over a longer time-horizon.</li>
<li>Infrastructure investment can simultaneously address supply-side constraints and thereby raise the productivity of other activities. Insofar as this reduces costs and improves the durability of private capital investment, it also enables the private sector to spend less on maintaining its own capital, releasing resources for other productive investment. Infrastructure provision that promotes social inclusion &ndash; such as better housing and improvements in health, education, sanitation and nutrition &ndash; enhances labour productivity in addition to promoting social welfare.</li>
<li>Conversely, low or insufficient infrastructure can handicap enterprises by increasing production costs. Indeed, countries that have experienced stalled industrialization or premature deindustrialization have tended to have inconsistent trajectories of infrastructure investments, that have been inadequate overall and sometimes pulled the economy in other directions.</li>
<li>In India, for example, several studies have noted that underinvestment in infrastructure required for manufacturing sector (Ghosh, 2012; Simon and Natarajan, 2017) has constrained private investment. By contrast, the rise of information technology services and digital products was possible in India because the conditions for the expansion of telecommunications and broadband networks were relatively less costly for the government to deliver.</li>
<li>The resulting infrastructure gaps then become constraints on supply. For example, Mesquita Moreira et al. (2013) found that high transportation costs were associated with falling exports in Chile and Peru.</li>
<li>While poor infrastructure in Africa increased transport and energy costs for local firms, with severe consequences for manufacturing productivity and competitiveness.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Historical Experiences</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>While infrastructure can boost productivity growth through a variety of channels, its contribution to sustaining a virtuous development circle does not occur in an institutional or policy vacuum.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Europe</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The gains that infrastructure brought during the industrial revolution, first in England and then in continental European countries, were not only the result of long-standing investments spanning decades or even centuries; they were often built on clear policy visions that placed infrastructure at the centre of nation-building efforts.</li>
<li>Conceived in 1830, Chevalier&rsquo;s impressive plan was for a grand European transport system to connect the entire continent with rails, roads and shipping routes, whereby railway lines spanning over 60,000 km would traverse from the Mediterranean, the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea (through northbound lines), linking them to eastbound destinations of Flanders at the North Sea via Warsaw, Vilnius, Riga and St Petersburg to the Russian Pacific (H&ouml;gselius et al., 2015; Drolet, 2015).</li>
<li>He believed that enhanced connectivity between regions would encourage trade, commerce and industrialization in Europe and the Ottoman Empire, and that this was the only way to foster political harmony. This vision tied &ldquo;public works&rdquo; (as infrastructure was then known) intimately with the economic, political and industrial progress of Europe at the time.</li>
<li>The essential features of this plan were indeed adopted by France as well as a number of European countries that became independent between 1830 and 1871, including Belgium, the German Empire, Greece, Italy, Serbia and Romania; and it even led to cross-country multilateral initiatives for infrastructure expansion</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>USA</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In the United States, the development of transport (notably railway) stimulated several industries such as iron, steel and timber; encouraged financial enterprise by promoting private investments into these sectors and railway construction; and contributed directly to the generation of national income through the provision and expansion of interregional and local transportation services</li>
<li>Bold public moves on infrastructure in the United States over two centuries that transformed the country and its economic potential:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Construction of the Erie Canal, which opened a water route to the west;</li>
<li>Lincoln&rsquo;s support for the transcontinental railroad, which transformed the country and enabled vast new cities to emerge;</li>
<li>Land Grant colleges that started in the midnineteenth century, which dramatically expanded access to higher education;</li>
<li>The Homestead Act of 1852, which enabled the westward expansion of population and settlement;</li>
<li>The construction of the Panama Canal in the early twentieth century, which enabled ships to pass between Atlantic and Pacific oceans and effectively sealed the hegemony of the United States in the region for the next century;</li>
<li>The Rural Electrification Administration of the Franklin D. Roosevelt government, which brought electricity to the rural United States with all its attendant benefits;</li>
<li>The GI Bill (Serviceman&rsquo;s Readjustment Act of 1944), which provided free college education and low-interest home and business loans to all veterans with more than 90 days in uniform, thereby creating a secure domestic market;</li>
<li>The interstate highway system created by Eisenhower&rsquo;s Federal Aid Highway Act, which revitalized the economy and modernized the United States.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h2>Infrastructure in Developing Countries</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Needs and gaps</li>
<li>The financing gap narrative</li>
</ul>
<h3>Needs and Gaps</h3>
<p>The emphasis on a &ldquo;top-down&rdquo; approach based on the use of global models is to the detriment of a &ldquo;bottom-up&rdquo; assessment of needs based on country-specific circumstances and specific long-term development strategies.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>There are large regional and intraregional variations in current infrastructure investment, for instance, In Africa, Ethiopia and United Republic of Tanzania spend well above 5 per cent of GDP on infrastructure, while Nigeria and South Africa (the region&rsquo;s two largest economies) have expenditures of just above 3 per cent and Egypt just over 2 per cent.</li>
<li>In Latin America, the regional average is, to a large extent, influenced by low infrastructure expenditure in the region&rsquo;s larger economies, with Argentina, Brazil and Mexico spending less than 2 per cent of GDP in 2015.</li>
<li>In Asia, at one extreme, East Asia spent 5.8 per cent of its GDP on infrastructure in 2011, but this subregional average was dominated by China, which showed infrastructure expenditure of 6.8 per cent of GDP over 2010&ndash;2014. At the other extreme, South-East Asia spent just 2.1 per cent, as the economies hit by the East Asian financial crisis of 1997 (such as Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines and Thailand) experienced significant declines in public spending as a proportion of GDP that have not fully recovered thereafter.</li>
</ul>
<p>Therefore, while on the whole Asia invests more and Africa andLatin America invest less in infrastructure development, no clear patterns emerge within regions, even in terms of country size or per capita income.</p>
<h3>The &ldquo;Financing-Gap&rdquo; Narrative</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>There is the need for countries to have a comprehensive long-term vision that recognizes the need to coordinate across sectors, regions and timelines, along with a more targeted medium-term planned approach towards infrastructure creation.</li>
<li>This contrasts, quite sharply, with the current approach to infrastructure investment that looks at individual projects on a case-by-case basis to ensure that they are &ldquo;bankable&rdquo; (assuring repayment of loans taken for such investment) and requires that all investors in such projects get adequate returns.</li>
</ul>
<p>The financing gap narrative with respect to infrastructure is built around a few key points.</p>
<ol>
<li>First, estimated infrastructure investment gaps in each country (discussed above) are taken to imply a financing gap of a similar order of magnitude.</li>
<li>Second, it is taken for granted that national public sectors in most countries are financially constrained with limited budgetary resources, face governance problems and run the risk of running into debt sustainability issues if they undertake infrastructure investments on the scale needed in the coming years.</li>
<li>Third, given this public resource constraint, private capital, which is typically invested in short-term financial assets, should be unlocked for infrastructure projects.</li>
<li>Fourth, for this to occur, a pipeline of &ldquo;bankable&rdquo; projects needs to be developed.</li>
</ol>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The standard diagnosis is that projects that fit that profile are currently scarce and the risk-adjusted returns of existing projects are too low to attract private investors.&nbsp;</li>
<li>Numerous factors are pinpointed as restricting the delivery of &ldquo;bankable&rdquo; projects.</li>
<li>These include low preparation capacity, high transaction costs, lack of liquid financial instruments, weak regulatory frameworks and legal opposition, along with various types of risks at the different phases of the life cycle of a project, such as: macroeconomic, political, technical and environmental risks at the phase of preparation; construction risks (overrun, cost escalation) during construction phase; and demand, operating and revenue risks (e.g. price and exchange risks; unrealized projected demand) at the operation phase.</li>
<li>In order to expand the supply of &ldquo;bankable&rdquo; projects, there should be clear identification of actual returns and possible risks (including of default); development of governance structures to ensure approval of stakeholders, including through compensation schemes; provision of de-risking instruments such as sovereign and credit guarantees; and government mapping of long-term investment paths to reduce investors&rsquo; uncertainty about the future.</li>
</ul>
<h2>A Framework for Considering the Role of Infrastructure in Development</h2>
<ol>
<li>Some basic consider</li>
<li>The role of planning in infrastructure development</li>
<li>Experiences with national development plans: Country evidence</li>
</ol>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A strategy of unbalanced growth, as noted earlier, assumes that there are some sectors that generate more forward and backward linkages than others and that government policy should target those sectors in terms of its efforts to mobilize, channel and manage resources and capabilities in ways that support a more virtuous growth circle.</li>
<li>This chapter has argued that infrastructure programmes should also be seen as a complementary part of such a development strategy.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Some Basic Considerations</h3>
<p>Some critical considerations that have direct relevance for organizing infrastructure investments in developing countries are as follows:</p>
<ol>
<li>The impact of infrastructure depends on the kind of investment</li>
<li>The impact of infrastructure is context- and sector-specific.<br />Like the infrastructure development has immediate and relatively large impacts on poorer countries, as opposed to advanced countries where there is already a relatively good network of infrastructure in place.</li>
<li>The impact of infrastructure is non-linear<br />Greater infrastructure investment does not always lead immediately to faster growth.</li>
<li>The impact of infrastructure depends on network effects within and between different kinds of investments.<br />All forms of modern infrastructure &ndash; transport, electricity, telecommunications and broadband &ndash; exhibit their own network effects. For instance, in the case of the Internet, the greater the number of Internet users, the greater the possibility of providing various online services but energy to promote production in rural areas would not necessarily lead to an increase in the rate of return to enterprises in the absence of other investments, such as roads or telecommunications.</li>
</ol>
<h3>The Role of Planning in Infrastructure Development</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Rapid economic transformation is unlikely to occur spontaneously, and throughout the twentieth century if successful countries had not relied on planning to &ldquo;initiate, spur, and steer economic development&rdquo;.</li>
<li>Planning involves a wide range of choices, from what sectors to prioritize and technologies to adopt, to the degree of macro coordination of investment decisions, to the amount of resources required and how to mobilize them.</li>
<li>The design and execution of an infrastructure plan should take into account a country&rsquo;s stage of development, existing infrastructure, industrial capabilities and expansion plans, urban versus rural divides, levels of policy ambition, existing infrastructure institutions and their coordination, availability of new financial, technical or other resources and the existence of political and managerial capacity for effective implementation.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Experiences with National Development Plans: Country Evidence</h3>
<p>Since the early 2000s, many developing countries have started to prepare and publish national development plans. These initiatives do not necessarily imply that countries rigorously stick to each of their provisions, but rather indicate a vision which countries may want to pursue in terms of their national trajectories.</p>
<h2>Conclusion</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Managing structural transformation is a big challenge at all levels of development. In part, that is because the mixture of creative and destructive forces accompanying such a transformation do not automatically translate into a virtuous growth circle.</li>
<li>This chapter has argued that structural transformation will also need to be accompanied by infrastructure planning. However, even as the funding for infrastructure has begun to recover after decades of decline, serious discussion of what is needed to effectively embed infrastructure programmes in a development strategy has not followed.</li>
<li>Indeed, even when infrastructure has been included in national plans, there does not appear to be any clear framework for moving from ambition to implementation. This disconnect is in part the result of a singular ideological drive to limit the infrastructure challenge to a matter of project bankability, leaving it solely in the hands of finance ministries.</li>
<li>But it also reflects a reluctance on the part of governments in developing countries to think about the challenge in a more comprehensive and integrated manner and to invest in the techniques, skills and institutional capacities required to ensure that infrastructure will not just build bridges but ensure those bridges deliver on the ambitions of the 2030 Agenda.</li>
</ul>
<h2>Way Forward</h2>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Going forward, the trading system will have to tackle three fundamental challenges:</li>
<li>First, in developed countries, the domestic support for globalization needs to be sustained in the face of economic weakness and the reduced ability to maintain social insurance mechanisms.</li>
<li>Second, China has become the world&rsquo;s largest trader and a major beneficiary of the current rules of the game. It will be called upon to shoulder more of the responsibilities of maintaining an open system.</li>
<li>The third challenge will be to prevent the rise of mega-regionalism from leading to discrimination and becoming a source of trade conflicts.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Hyperglobalization </strong></p>
<p>Since the early 1990s, the world has entered into an era of what might be called hyperglobalization. The years between 1870 and 1914 have been described as the first golden age of globalization. World trade as a share of GDP surged from 9 percent in 1870 to 16 percent on the eve of World War I. This was the era that John Maynard Keynes waxed eloquently about, noting that an inhabitant of London &ldquo;could order by telephone, sipping his morning tea in bed, the various products of the whole earth, in such quantity as he might see fit, and reasonably expect their early delivery upon his doorstep&rdquo; (Keynes 1920, 11). The period between 1914 and the end of World War II witnessed the great reversal of globalization, as the combustible mix of isolationism, nationalism, and militarism ignited protectionist policies. World trade plunged to a low of 5.5 percent of world GDP just before World War II began (O&rsquo;Rourke and Williamson 1999, Frieden 2006, and Irwin 2011). A third era, starting after World War II, saw the restoration of world trade, aided by declines in transportation costs and trade barriers. Only by about the mid- to late-1970s did world trade revert to the peaks seen before World War I. The world is now in a fourth era&mdash;of hyperglobalization&mdash;in which world trade has soared much more rapidly than world GDP. Merchandise exports-to-GDP ratios soared from 15 percent to 26 percent, and goods and services exports to about 33 percent over the course of the last two decades. This rapid increase is somewhat surprising, because transportation costs do not appear to have declined as rapidly as in earlier eras (Hummels, Ishii, and Yi 2001 and Baldwin 2011a). The cost of information and communications did decline significantly, however. Part of the increase in trade reflects the fragmentation of manufacturing across borders&mdash;the famous slicing up of the value-added chain&mdash;as individual production stages are located where the costs of production are lowest. This phenomenon, whereby technology no longer requires that successive stages of manufacturing production be physically contiguous or proximate, has been dubbed the &ldquo;second unbundling&rdquo; (Baldwin 2011a).</p>
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		'title' => 'In Depth - International Court of Justice',
		'catname' => 'Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha Discussions',
		'desc' => '<p style="text-align: center;"><iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/SUXP6FKvqLA" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe></p>
<p style="text-align: left;">ICJ recently concluded the four-day public hearing on Kulbhushan Jadhav case. India has urged the ICJ to annul Jadhav&rsquo;s death sentence given by a Pakistan military court. On the other hand, Pakistan continued to claim that Jadhav is an instrument of India&rsquo;s official policy of Terror.</p>
<h3>ICJ</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>ICJ is a principal judicial organization of United Nations(UN).</li>
<li>It settles legal disputes between member countries and gives advisory opinions to authorized UN Organs and Specialized Agencies.</li>
<li>It is seated in the Peace Palace of Hague, Netherlands.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Establishment</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It was established in 1945 by a UN Charter and began working in 1946 as the successor to the Permanent Court of International Justice.</li>
<li>The Statute of the International Court of Justice is the main constitutional document constituting and regulating the conduct of the court.</li>
<li>Chapter XIV of the United Nations Charter authorizes the UN Security Council to enforce Court rulings. However, such enforcement is subject to the veto power of the five permanent members(France, U.K, China, U.S, Russia) of the Council.</li>
<li>Every country which is/becomes a member of the UN also is/becomes a member of ICJ i.e. comes within its jurisdiction.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Election Process</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The election process for the judges is set out in Articles 4&ndash;19 of the ICJ statute.</li>
<li>It is composed of 15 judges who are elected for the term of nine years, by the UN General Assembly and the UN Security Council. The elected judges form part of the list of people nominated by the national groups in the Permanent Court of Arbitration.</li>
<li>Elections are staggered, with five judges elected every three years to ensure continuity within the court. If a judge dies in office, the practice has generally been to elect a judge in a special election to complete the term.</li>
<li>A judge can be dismissed only by a unanimous vote of the other members of the court.</li>
<li>No two judges can be nationals of the same country. The judges in ICJ are chosen to represent all geographic regions of the world- an informal understanding between the nations.</li>
<li>There are five seats for Western Countries, three seats for the African States, two for the Eastern Europe States, three for the Asian States and two for Latin American and Caribbean States.</li>
<li>Article 6 of the Statute provides that all judges should be elected regardless of their nationality. Judges should be of high moral character either qualified for the highest judicial office in their home states or known as lawyers with sufficient competence in international law.</li>
<li>Judges of ICJ cannot hold any other post or act as counsel.</li>
<li>Article 31 of the statute sets out a procedure whereby Ad Hoc judges sit on contentious cases before the court. The system allows any party to a contentious case to select one additional person to sit as a judge on that case only. It is thus possible that as many as seventeen judges may sit on one case. Ad Hoc judges usually vote in <g class="gr_ gr_132 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling multiReplace" id="132" data-gr-id="132">favour</g> of the state that appointed them and thus cancels each other out.</li>
<li>Judges may deliver joint judgments or give their own separate opinions. Decisions and advisory opinions are by majority, and, in the event of an equal division, the President's vote becomes decisive.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Jurisdiction</h3>
<p>ICJ acts as a World Court and is the principal legal organ body of the UN. The court&rsquo;s jurisdiction is two-fold:</p>
<p>Contentious Cases</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>ICJ, in accordance with International Law, settles the disputes of legal nature that are submitted to it by states.</li>
<li>Only states may apply to and appear before the ICJ. International Organizations, other authorities, and private individuals are not entitled to institute proceedings before the court.</li>
<li>Article 35 defines the conditions under which States may access the Court. It states that court is open to the state parties to the Statute, and is intended to regulate access to the Court by the states which are not parties to the Statute.</li>
<li>The Court can only deal with a dispute when the States concerned have recognized its jurisdiction.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Advisory Opinions</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Advisory Procedure is available to five UN Organs, fifteen Specialized Agencies, and one Related Organization.</li>
<li>Advisory Proceedings begin with the filing of a written request for an advisory opinion addressed to the Registrar by the UN Secretary-General or the Director or Secretary General of the Entity requesting the opinion.</li>
<li>In urgent cases, the Court may take all appropriate measures to speed up the proceedings. It is even empowered to hold written and oral proceedings.</li>
<li>Despite having no-binding force, the Court&rsquo;s advisory opinions nevertheless, carry great legal weight and moral authority and thus help in the development and clarification of International Laws.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p>India at ICJ</p>
<p>India has remained involved in cases at ICJ on six occasions, including the present Jadhav case. Pakistan was the opposing party in the four out of six cases.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In 1955, Portugal claimed the right of passage through the territory of India to ensure communications between its territory of Daman and its enclaved territories of Dadra and Nagar-Haveli.</li>
<li>India contended that the events that took place in Dadra on 21st &amp; 22nd July 1954 overthrew Portuguese authority in these enclaves creating tension in the surrounding Indian Territory.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Verdict: The ICJ did not find fault with India and ruled that India has not acted contrary to its obligations.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>In 1971, India said that the Council of the International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) had no jurisdiction on a complaint filed by Pakistan.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Verdict: ICJ held that ICAO is indeed competent to entertain the complaint made to it by Pakistan.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>In 1973, Pakistan sought proceedings against India on the charges of genocide against 195 Pakistani nationals, prisoners of war or civilian internees in the Indian custody.</li>
<li>The case ended after both India and Pakistan governments held discussions and came to an agreement on the issue.</li>
<li>In 1999, Pakistan entered into a dispute on the destruction of a Pakistani aircraft by India in 1999. Pakistan said that the ICJ had jurisdiction in this issue.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Verdict: ICJ concluded that it had no jurisdiction to entertain the application filed by Pakistan.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>In 2014, The Republic of the Marshall Islands instituted proceedings against all nuclear weapon states, including India, contending breach of customary law obligations on nuclear disarmament.</li>
<li>India said that the ICJ had no jurisdiction in the case.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Verdict: ICJ accepted that it cannot proceed to the merits of the case because of lack of jurisdiction.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>In 2017, India filed a case on illegal detention of former Indian Navy Officer Kulbhushan Jadhav by Pakistan. The case is in progress at ICJ.</li>
</ul>
</div>',
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		'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/loksabha-rajyasabha-discussions/in-depth-international-court-of-justice'
	],
	(int) 9 => [
		'title' => 'UK Asked to Return Chagos Islands to Mauritius',
		'catname' => 'News Analysis',
		'desc' => '<p><strong>International Court of Justice (ICJ)</strong> has asked the United Kingdom to return the Chagos Archipelago back to Mauritius.&nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp; &nbsp;</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>ICJ has said that continued British occupation of the Chagos archipelago is illegal.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Court&rsquo;s Advisory Opinion</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>ICJ in its advisory opinion has said that:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The process of decolonization of Mauritius was not complete when the country was <strong>given independence in 1968</strong> as the Chagos Archipelago was separated.</li>
<li>The UK should <strong>give up its administrative control</strong> over the Chagos Archipelago as rapidly as possible.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Background</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The case was referred to the ICJ, which hears legal submissions over international boundary disputes, after an overwhelming vote in 2017 in the UN general assembly.</li>
<li>In its submission to the ICJ last year, Mauritius argued it was<strong> coerced into giving up the Chagos Islands.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>That separation was in breach of<strong> UN resolution 1514, passed in 1960,</strong> which specifically banned the breakup of colonies before independence.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The UK government argued that the court did not have jurisdiction to hear the case.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Likely Impact</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>The United Kingdom:</strong> Although the decision by the ICJ is<strong> only advisory,</strong> the judgment is a blow to the UK&rsquo;s prestige on the world stage.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The UN general assembly vote in 2017, revealed the waning UK&rsquo;s international influence as many European Countries countries did not support the UK and traditional allies such as Canada abstaining.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Mauritius:</strong> The government of Mauritius has welcomed the decision and said that is is a &ldquo;historic moment in efforts to bring colonialism to an end, and to promote human rights, self-determination and the international rule of law&rdquo;.</li>
<li><strong>On US Military Base:</strong> The <strong>opinion is unlikely to impact the U.S. military</strong> base as Mauritius has said in the UN General Assembly that it is committed to the continued operation of the base in<strong> Diego Garcia under a long-term framework.</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>Chagos Archipelago<a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1577427475_image35.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1577427475_image35.jpg" width="500" caption="false" style="float: right;" /></a></h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Chagos Archipelago, island group in the central Indian Ocean, located about 1,000 miles (1,600 km) south of the <strong>southern tip of the Indian subcontinent.</strong></li>
<li>In the 19<sup>th</sup> century, Chagos were<strong> governed from Mauritius,</strong> which was a<strong> British Colony.</strong></li>
<li>The UK retained possession of the Chagos archipelago, which includes the strategic US airbase of Diego Garcia, after Mauritius gained its independence in 1968, by<strong> paying Mauritius more than &pound;4m for the islands.</strong></li>
<li>The U.K. government refers to it as <strong>British Indian Ocean Territory or BIOT.</strong></li>
<li>About 1,500 native islanders were deported from the Diego Garcia island in Chagos archipelago so that it could be leased to <strong>the US for the airbase in 1971.</strong></li>
<li>Mauritius claimed that it was forced to give up the islands in 1965 in exchange for independence, which it gained in 1968.</li>
</ul>
<h3>India&rsquo;s Stand</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India has <strong>supported Mauritius stand</strong> on the Chagos Archipelago.</li>
<li>India in its submission to ICJ has said that the Chagos Archipelago has been and continues to be with Mauritius and demanded <strong>sovereignty over the Chagos Archipelago from Britain.</strong></li>
<li>India stayed committed to its <strong>Indian Ocean neighbor Mauritius, as well as its anti-colonial credentials.</strong></li>
</ul>',
		'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
		'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/uk-asked-to-return-chagos-islands-to-mauritius'
	],
	(int) 10 => [
		'title' => 'Important Fact For Prelims (26th February 2019)',
		'catname' => 'News Analysis',
		'desc' => '<h3>Global Digital Health Partnership Summit</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Union Minister of Health and Family Welfare</strong> has inaugurated the <strong>&lsquo;4<sup>th</sup> Global Digital Health Partnership Summit&rsquo;</strong> in New Delhi.</li>
<li>The global intergovernmental meeting on digital health is being hosted by the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare in collaboration with <strong>World Health Organization (WHO)</strong> and the<strong> Global Digital Health Partnership (GDHP).</strong></li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Global Digital Health Partnership</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Global Digital Health Partnership (GDHP) is an international collaboration of governments, government agencies and multinational organisations dedicated to improving the health and well-being of their citizens through the best use of evidence-based digital technologies.</li>
<li>It was<strong> established in February 2018,</strong> to provide an opportunity for transformational engagement between its participants.</li>
<li><strong>Australia</strong> was the host country for the <strong>inaugural summit in 2018.</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>Rail Drishti Dashboard</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The government has launched <strong>Rail Drishti dashboard</strong>, encompassing all the digitisation efforts in Indian Railways and promoting transparency and accountability.</li>
<li>The<strong> dashboard (raildrishti.cris.org.in)</strong> brings information from various sources on a single platform and gives access to key statistics and parameters to every citizen of the country.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>It contains information related to passenger and freight trains and links to live feeds of IRCTC kitchens.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The available information has been categorized <strong>under 15 sections on the Dashboard.</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>Stratocumulus Clouds</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A recent study has warned that i<strong>ncreasing Carbon Dioxide levels</strong> can warm the Earth dramatically and can lead to<a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/earth-at-risk-of-becoming-hothouse" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong> hothouse conditions.</strong></a></li>
<li>The <strong>Stratocumulus clouds</strong> that reflects sunlight back into space could break up and vanish if<strong> CO<sub>2</sub> in the atmosphere triples.</strong></li>
<li>Stratocumulus clouds cover about<strong> 20% of subtropical oceans</strong> and when they disappear, Earth warms dramatically, by about eight degrees. This is in addition to the global warming that comes from enhanced greenhouse concentrations alone.</li>
<li>A temperature increase of that magnitude would melt polar ice and lift sea levels dozens of meters.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Types of Clouds</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>According to their <strong>height, expanse, density and transparency or opaqueness clouds</strong> are grouped under four types:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Cirrus:</strong> Cirrus clouds are formed at high altitudes (8,000 - 12,000m). They are thin and detached clouds having a feathery appearance. They are always white in colour.</li>
<li><strong>Cumulus:</strong> Cumulus clouds look like cotton wool. They are formed at a height of 4,000 - 7,000 m. They exist in patches and can be seen scattered here and there. They have a flat base.</li>
<li><strong>Stratus:</strong> These are layered clouds covering large portions of the sky. These clouds are generally formed either due to loss of heat or due to the mixing of air masses with different temperatures.</li>
<li><strong>Nimbus:</strong> Nimbus clouds are black or dark gray. They form at middle levels or very near to the surface of the earth. These are extremely dense and opaque to the rays of the sun.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>A combination of these four basic types can give rise to the following types of clouds:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>High clouds</strong> &ndash; cirrus, cirrostratus, cirrocumulus;</li>
<li><strong>Middle clouds</strong> &ndash; altostratus and altocumulus;</li>
<li><strong>Low clouds</strong> &ndash; stratocumulus and nimbostratus and clouds with extensive vertical development &ndash; cumulus and cumulonimbus.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>National War Memorial</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Recently, Prime Minister has inaugurated <strong>National War Memorial in New Delhi.</strong></li>
<li>The memorial is located at the<strong> India Gate complex in New Delhi.</strong></li>
<li>The layout of the structure comprises four concentric circles, named:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>the<strong> "Amar Chakra"</strong> or Circle of Immortality,</li>
<li>the<strong> "Veerta Chakra"</strong> or Circle of Bravery,</li>
<li>the <strong>"Tyag Chakra"</strong> or Circle of Sacrifice and</li>
<li>the<strong> "Rakshak Chakra"</strong> or Circle of Protection.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The busts of <strong>21 awardees of the Param Veer Chakra</strong> are also installed at the Param Yoddha Sthal.</li>
<li>The <strong>National War Memorial also commemorates the soldiers</strong> who participated and made supreme sacrifices in <strong>United Nations peace-keeping missions, Humanitarian Assistance Disaster Relief (HADR) operations, counterinsurgency operations and Low-Intensity Conflict Operations (LICO).</strong></li>
<li>Since Independence, more than <strong>25,000 personnel have been martyred during the India-China War in 1962, the Indo-Pakistan wars in 1947, 1965 and 1971, the Indian Peace Keeping Force operations in Sri Lanka and the conflict in Kargil in 1999.</strong></li>
<li>The <strong>proposal</strong> for a National War Memorial was first <strong>made in the 1960s.</strong></li>
<li>In 2015, the cabinet gave in-principle approval for war memorial construction at India Gate Complex, New Delhi.</li>
<li>In 2016, after an international competition to design of the Memorial,<strong> Chennai-based architecture company WeBe Design Lab</strong> was selected.</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1577427700_image50.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1577427700_image50.jpg" width="500" caption="false" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></a></p>',
		'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
		'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/important-fact-for-prelims-26th-february-2019'
	],
	(int) 11 => [
		'title' => 'Migration and Remittances: The Gender Angle',
		'catname' => 'News Editorials',
		'desc' => '<div class="border">
<p>(The editorial is based on the article &ldquo;Migration and remittances: The gender angle&rdquo; which appeared in BusinessLine for 26th February 2019. In this article, we will discuss the gender distribution of cross-border migration.)</p>
</div>
<p>The gender distribution of cross-border migration is a matter of importance because women migrating for work face very different conditions from those of men migrants, whether in the source country or in the process of travel or in the destination country.</p>
<p>These are crucially affected by gender construction as well as the nature of labor markets in both societies of origin and destination.</p>
<p>However, the impact of such gendered migration has remained much less apparent and less analyzed. Specifically, the impact of gendered migration on the sending of remittances is an issue that is often ignored, even though it can be very significant. Women migrating for work have been known to send a greater proportion of their earnings back as remittances and to send more regularly than men as their nature of work significantly differs from those of men&rsquo;s.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Men migrant workers are mostly to be found in manufacturing and construction activitie</strong>s in the host countries. <strong>Women migrants, by contrast, are overwhelmingly in service work, particularly in care activities</strong>.</li>
<li>This has direct implications for earnings and therefore for the ability (apart from the willingness) to send remittances back to migrants&rsquo; homes.</li>
<li><strong>Male migrant workers are much more immediately affected by business cycles in the host economies</strong>, tending to lose jobs or experience reduced incomes, which thereby affects the remittances they can send.</li>
<li><strong>Women working in services activities, by contrast, especially those in care services such as nurses or domestic workers, are less likely to be immediately</strong> affected by the business cycle as these activities are not the first to be curtailed. Therefore, their incomes and ability to send remittances are less affected.</li>
<li><strong>This means that countries that send more women migrant workers out are likely to show a more stable pattern of remittance inflow than countries with dominantly male out-migrants.</strong> This is clearly evident in migration out of Asian countries.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Global Stats</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Women have been significant in cross-border migration in several Asian countries</strong> &mdash; Sri Lanka, the Philippines and India have shown high ratios of female migrants, followed by Pakistan and Vietnam. In all these countries, remittances form a significant proportion of GDP.</li>
<li><strong>However, Bangladesh showed a very low ratio.</strong> Bangladesh has had very strict laws on women&rsquo;s external mobility (which require the permission of the male head of household) and has restricted women&rsquo;s migration. Remittance inflows have been much more volatile and have even fallen in several years, as the predominantly male migrant workers have been affected by fluctuating economic conditions in the major host countries (the Middle East and the US).</li>
<li><strong>The most interesting contrast in remittance inflows is between Sri Lanka and the Philippines, on one hand, and Bangladesh on the other.</strong> Between 1980 and 2013, women dominated out-migration from the Philippines, accounting for 60% of such migrants. Their share peaked in 2004 at around three-fourths of the outflow of workers abroad, and most of them were employed as domestic workers in the destination countries.</li>
<li>Thereafter, attempts by the Philippine government to regulate their conditions of work and reduce exploitative practices led to a reduction in the number of such women migrants, whose share shrank to less than half in 2007 and 2008. A revival thereafter led to previous levels being surpassed in 2010. Correspondingly, remittance inflows also increased continuously, despite some slowdown in the late 2000s.</li>
<li><strong>For Pakistan, less of the female migration has been for work and more for reasons of marriage &mdash;</strong> and this has affected the volatility of remittances as well. In Vietnam, the growing significance of women migrants has been reflected in a smoother trend increase in recent years compared to the past.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Opportunities</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Migration can be empowering</strong> for women.</li>
<li>The <strong>introduction to more equitable societal norms can improve women&rsquo;s rights</strong>, autonomy, and access to resources.</li>
<li>When migrant women return home, they often maintain their newfound autonomy, as well as<strong> bring home new norms, skills, and expertise.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Family health and children&rsquo;s education may improve</strong> as a result of migration.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Concerns</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Migration and transnational parenting can put a strain on families.</strong> Migration can have positive effects on the family and household, but the change in parenting and separation can be difficult, even with increased access to telecommunications and the Internet. Research is mixed on the effects of migration on children.</li>
<li><strong>When high‐skilled migrants leave, the results can be negative for the communities of origin, referred to as &ldquo;brain drain.&rdquo;</strong></li>
<li>Many women employed in low paid sectors may not be in a position to save money to invest in their return. They may not even have an adequate pension, leaving them with no choice but to migrate again in old age.</li>
<li><strong>High‐skilled migrant women are often underemployed</strong> and work in positions below their qualifications.</li>
<li>Female migrants may be forced into prostitution or to sell sexual favors to survive or provide for their families.</li>
<li><strong>Migrant women, especially irregular migrants, may be more vulnerable to violence.</strong></li>
<li>Domestic work is generally not covered by employment laws.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Indian Scene</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>The Indian case presents a more complex picture.</strong> Women workers have been around half of the recorded migrants, yet remittances display a more volatile pattern. This relates to the specific nature of the origin of remittances, which is in turn determined by the destination of migrants as well as by gender.</li>
<li>In 2013, 52% of the stock of Indian migrants abroad were in just two countries in the Middle East: Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates. Just under a quarter were in the United States.</li>
<li>This excludes the Indians living in the US on temporary visas like H1B visas, who are more likely to send remittances than permanent migrants; indeed, remittances from the US have accounted for around half of the total remittances over the past decade.</li>
<li>But such remittance flows emanating from temporary but high-skilled workers tend to be larger than the smaller amounts sent by women workers in less skilled care activities in the Middle East.</li>
<li>Therefore, while the women migrants mostly continue to send remittances in periods of down-swing, male professional workers on short-term visas are more directly affected by adverse economic conditions.</li>
<li><strong>So in this matter (and in so much else in the matter of employment patterns), the Indian experience tends to be somewhat of an outlier with regard to the relationship between gendered migration and remittances.</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>Way Forward</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>There is a need to ensure migrant women are granted full human rights</strong> and can access services and resources for basic rights.</li>
<li><strong>Provide access to financial institutions and better channels</strong> for sending and receiving remittances.</li>
<li><strong>The rights of migrant women should be legally protected and they should have access to legal services</strong> and remedies and also for health services.</li>
<li><strong>There is a need to promote nondiscrimination in access to labor markets and job sectors,</strong> thereby increasing access and opportunities for women</li>
<li>The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development recognizes for the first time the contribution of migration to sustainable development. Now, the Governments across the globe should create bilateral, multilateral, and regional dialogue and agreements that include provisions for sharing information and best practices to ensure migrant rights, support, and protection.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>The International Organization for Migration (IOM)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Established in 1951, IOM is the leading inter-governmental organization in the field of migration.</li>
<li>IOM works to help ensure the orderly and humane management of migration for the benefit of all, to promote international cooperation on migration issues, to assist in the search for practical solutions to migration problems and to provide humanitarian assistance to migrants in need, including refugees and internally displaced people.</li>
<li>UN member states adopted a set of commitments, known as the New York Declaration for Refugees and Migrants, recognizing the need for a comprehensive approach to migration.</li>
<li>The New York Declaration acknowledges the positive contribution of migrants to sustainable and inclusive development, and commits to protecting the safety, dignity and human rights and fundamental freedoms of all migrants, regardless of their migratory status.</li>
</ul>
</div>',
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	],
	(int) 12 => [
		'title' => 'Lokpal and Lokayukta',
		'catname' => 'National Institutions',
		'desc' => '<h3>What are Lokpal and Lokayukta?</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The <strong>Lokpal and Lokayukta Act, 2013</strong> provided for the establishment of Lokpal for the Union and Lokayukta for States.</li>
<li>These institutions are <strong>statutory bodies</strong> without any constitutional status.</li>
<li>They perform the function of an "ombudsman&rdquo; and inquire into allegations of corruption against certain public functionaries and for related matters.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Why do we need such institutions?</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Maladministration is like a termite which slowly erodes the foundation of a nation and hinders administration from completing its task. Corruption is the root cause of this problem.</li>
<li>Most of the anti-corruption agencies are hardly independent. Even Supreme Court has been termed CBI as a &ldquo;caged parrot&rdquo; and &ldquo;its master&rsquo;s voice&rdquo;.</li>
<li>Many of these agencies are advisory bodies without any effective powers and their advice is rarely followed.</li>
<li>There is also the problem of internal transparency and accountability. Moreover, there is not any separate and effective mechanism to put checks on these agencies.</li>
<li>In this context, an independent institution of Lokpal has been a landmark move in the history of Indian polity which offered a solution to the never-ending menace of corruption.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Background</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In 1809, the institution of ombudsman was <strong>inaugurated officially in Sweden</strong>.</li>
<li>In the 20th century, Ombudsman as an institution developed and grew most significantly after the Second World War.</li>
<li><strong>New Zealand and Norway adopted this system in the year 1962</strong> and it proved to be of great significance in spreading the concept of the ombudsman.</li>
<li>In 1967, on the recommendations of the <strong>Whyatt Report of 1961, Great Britain adopted the institution of the ombudsman</strong> and became the first large nation in the democratic world to have such a system.</li>
<li>In 1966, Guyana became the first developing nation to adopt the concept of the ombudsman. Subsequently, it was further adopted by Mauritius, Singapore, Malaysia, and India as well.</li>
<li>In India, the concept of constitutional ombudsman was <strong>first proposed by the then law minister Ashok Kumar Sen in parliament in the early 1960s.</strong></li>
<li>The term Lokpal and Lokayukta were <strong>coined by Dr. L. M. Singhvi.</strong></li>
<li><strong>In 1966, the First Administrative Reforms Commission recommended the setting up of two independent authorities-</strong> at the central and state level, to look into complaints against public functionaries, including MPs.</li>
<li>In 1968, Lokpal bill was passed in Lok Sabha but lapsed with the dissolution of Lok Sabha and since then it has lapsed in the Lok Sabha many times.</li>
<li>Till 2011 eight attempts were made to pass the Bill, but all met with failure.</li>
<li>In 2002, the Commission to <strong>Review the Working of the Constitution headed by M.N. Venkatachaliah recommended the appointment of the Lokpal and Lokayuktas</strong>; also recommended that the PM <g class="gr_ gr_204 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear Grammar multiReplace" id="204" data-gr-id="204">be</g> kept out of the ambit of the authority.</li>
<li>In 2005, the <strong>Second Administrative Reforms Commission chaired by Veerappa Moily</strong> recommended that the office of Lokpal should be established without delay.</li>
<li>In 2011, the government formed a Group of Ministers, chaired by Pranab Mukherjee to suggest measures to tackle corruption and examine the proposal of a Lokpal Bill.</li>
<li>"India Against Corruption movement" led by Anna Hazare put pressure on the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) government at the Centre and resulted in the passing of the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Bill, 2013, in both the Houses of Parliament.</li>
<li>It received assent from President on 1 January 2014 and came into force on 16 January 2014.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>The Lokpal and Lokayuktas (Amendment) Bill, 2016</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>This Bill was passed by Parliament in July 2016 and amended the Lokpal and Lokayukta Act, 2013.</li>
<li>It <strong>enables the leader of the single largest opposition party in the Lok Sabha to be a member of the selection committee</strong> in the absence of a recognized Leader of Opposition.</li>
<li>It also amended section 44 of the 2013 Act that deals with the provision of furnishing of details of assets and liabilities of public servants within 30 days of joining the government service.</li>
<li>The Bill replaces the time limit of 30 days, now the public servants will make a declaration of their assets and liabilities in the form and manner as prescribed by the government.</li>
<li>It also gives an extension of the time given to trustees and board members to declare their assets and those of their spouses in case of these are receiving government funds of more than Rs. 1 crore or foreign funding of more than Rs. 10 lakh.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Structure of Lokpal</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Lokpal is a multi-member body, that consists of one chairperson and a maximum of 8 members.</li>
<li>Chairperson of the Lokpal should be either the former Chief Justice of India or the former Judge of Supreme Court or an eminent person with impeccable integrity and outstanding ability, having special knowledge and expertise of minimum 25 years in the matters relating to anti-corruption policy, public administration, vigilance, finance including insurance and banking, law and management.</li>
<li>Out of the maximum eight members, half will be judicial members and minimum 50% of the Members will be from SC/ ST/ OBC/ Minorities and women.</li>
<li>The judicial member of the Lokpal either a former Judge of the Supreme Court or a former Chief Justice of a High Court.</li>
<li>The non-judicial member should be an eminent person with impeccable integrity and outstanding ability, having special knowledge and expertise of minimum 25 years in the matters relating to anti-corruption policy, public administration, vigilance, finance including insurance and banking, law and management.</li>
<li>The <strong>term of office for Lokpal Chairman and Members is 5 years or till the age of 70 years.</strong></li>
<li>The <strong>members are appointed by the president</strong> on the recommendation of a Selection Committee.</li>
<li>The selection committee is composed of the Prime Minister who is the Chairperson; Speaker of Lok Sabha, Leader of Opposition in Lok Sabha,&nbsp; Chief Justice of India or a Judge nominated by him/her and One eminent jurist.</li>
<li>For selecting the chairperson and the members, the selection committee constitutes a search panel of at least eight persons.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Lokpal Search Committee</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Under the Lokpal Act of 2013, the DoPT is supposed to put together a list of candidates interested to be the chairperson or members of the Lokpal.</li>
<li>This list would then go to the proposed eight-member search committee, which would shortlist names and place them before the selection panel headed by the Prime Minister.</li>
<li>The selection panel may or may not pick names suggested by the search committee.</li>
<li>In September 2018, the <a href="https://www.google.com/url?q=https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/supreme-court-sets-deadline-for-lokpal-appointment&amp;sa=D&amp;ust=1551173236003000&amp;usg=AFQjCNF9P_-MmlBUbr2aZEja5SBfhCVCQQ" target="_blank" rel="noopener">government had constituted a search committee headed by former Supreme Court judge Justice Ranjana Prakash Desai.</a></li>
<li>The 2013 Act also provides that all states should set up the office of the Lokayukta within one year from the commencement of the Act.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Lokpal Jurisdiction and Powers</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Jurisdiction of Lokpal <strong>includes Prime Minister, Ministers, members of Parliament, Groups A, B, C and D officers and officials of Central Government.</strong></li>
<li>Jurisdiction of the Lokpal included the Prime Minister except on allegations of corruption relating to international relations, security, the public order, atomic energy <g class="gr_ gr_183 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear Punctuation only-ins replaceWithoutSep" id="183" data-gr-id="183">and</g> space.</li>
<li>The Lokpal does not have jurisdiction over Ministers and MPs in the matter of anything said in Parliament or a vote given there.</li>
<li>Its jurisdiction also includes any person who is or has been in charge (director/ manager/ secretary) of anybody/ society set up by central act or any other body financed/ controlled by central government and any other person involved in act of abetting, bribe giving or <g class="gr_ gr_186 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear ContextualSpelling ins-del multiReplace" id="186" data-gr-id="186">bribe taking</g>.</li>
<li>The Lokpal Act mandates that all public officials should furnish the assets and liabilities of themselves as well as their respective dependents.</li>
<li>It <strong>has the powers to superintendence over, and to give direction to CBI.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>If Lokpal has referred a case to CBI, the investigating officer in such case cannot be transferred without the approval of Lokpal.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>The Inquiry Wing of the Lokpal has been <strong>vested with the powers of a civil court.</strong></li>
<li>Lokpal has <strong>powers of confiscation of assets, proceeds, receipts <g class="gr_ gr_181 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear Punctuation only-ins replaceWithoutSep" id="181" data-gr-id="181">and</g> benefits arisen or procured by means of corruption</strong> in special circumstances.</li>
<li>Lokpal has the <strong>power to recommend transfer or suspension of public servant</strong> connected with allegation of corruption.</li>
<li>Lokpal has the<strong> power to give directions to prevent the destruction of records</strong> during the preliminary inquiry.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Limitations</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The institution of <g class="gr_ gr_187 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear ContextualSpelling ins-del multiReplace" id="187" data-gr-id="187">lokpal</g> has tried to bring a <g class="gr_ gr_189 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear ContextualSpelling multiReplace" id="189" data-gr-id="189">much needed</g> change in the battle against corruption in the administrative structure of India but at the same time, there are loopholes and lacunae which need to be corrected.</li>
<li>Five years have passed since the Lokpal and Lokayuktas Act 2013 was passed by parliament, but not a single Lokpal has been appointed till date indicating the<strong> lack of political will.</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Lokpal act also called upon states to appoint a Lokayukta within a year of its coming to force. But only 16 states have established the Lokayukta.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li>Lokpal is <strong>not free from political influence</strong> as the appointing committee itself consist of members from political parties.</li>
<li>The appointment of Lokpal can be manipulated in a way as there is no criterion to decide who is an &lsquo;eminent jurist&rsquo; or &lsquo;a person of integrity.&rsquo;</li>
<li>The 2013 act<strong> did not provide concrete immunity to the <g class="gr_ gr_179 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear ContextualSpelling ins-del" id="179" data-gr-id="179">whistle blowers</g>.</strong> The provision for initiation of inquiry against the complainant if the accused is found innocent will only discourage people from complaining.</li>
<li>The biggest lacuna is the <strong>exclusion of judiciary from the ambit of the Lokpal.</strong></li>
<li>The Lokpal is <strong>not given any constitutional backing</strong> and there is no adequate provision for appeal against the Lokpal.</li>
<li>The specific details in relation to the appointment of Lokayukta have been left completely on the States.</li>
<li>To some extent, the need for functional independence of the CBI has been catered to by a change brought forth in the selection process of its Director, by this Act.</li>
<li>The complaint against corruption cannot be registered after a period of seven years from the date on which the <g class="gr_ gr_208 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear ContextualSpelling multiReplace" id="208" data-gr-id="208">offence</g> mentioned in such complaint is alleged to have been committed.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Suggestions</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In order to tackle the problem of corruption, the <strong>institution of the ombudsman should be strengthened</strong> both in terms of functional autonomy and availability of manpower.</li>
<li><strong>Greater transparency, more right to information and empowerment of citizens and citizen groups</strong> is required along with <g class="gr_ gr_185 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear Grammar only-del replaceWithoutSep" id="185" data-gr-id="185">a good</g> leadership that is willing to subject itself to public scrutiny.</li>
<li>Appointment of Lokpal in itself is not enough. The government should address the issues based on which people are demanding a Lokpal. Merely adding to the strength of investigative agencies will increase the size of the government but not necessarily improve governance. The slogan adopted by the government of &ldquo;less government and more governance&rdquo;, should be followed in letter and spirit.</li>
<li>Moreover, Lokpal and Lokayukta must be <g class="gr_ gr_163 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_disable_anim_appear Grammar multiReplace" id="163" data-gr-id="163">financially</g>, administratively and legally independent of those whom they are called upon to investigate and prosecute.</li>
<li>Lokpal and Lokayukta appointments must be done transparently so as to minimize the chances of the wrong sorts of people getting in.</li>
<li>There is a need for a multiplicity of decentralized institutions with appropriate accountability mechanisms, to avoid the concentration of too much power, in any one institution or authority.</li>
</ul>',
		'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
		'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/important-institutions/drishti-specials-important-institutions-national-institutions/lokpal-lokayukta-ombudsman-upsc-governance-transparency'
	],
	(int) 13 => [
		'title' => 'Cross-Border Terrorism',
		'catname' => 'Paper 3',
		'desc' => '<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/510Drishti_ias_Crossborder-Terrorism.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/510Drishti_ias_Crossborder-Terrorism.jpg" style="display: block; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" /></a></p>',
		'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
		'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/mind-map/gs-paper3/cross-border-terrorism-mindmap'
	],
	(int) 14 => [
		'title' => 'Important Fact For Prelims (25th February 2019)',
		'catname' => 'News Analysis',
		'desc' => '<h3>Chabahar Port<a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1577427236_image22.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1577427236_image22.jpg" width="550" caption="false" style="float: right;" /></a></h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Afghanistan, for the first time, has begun exports to India through <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/indian-firm-takes-over-chabahar-port-operations" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>Iran&rsquo;s Chabahar port.</strong></a><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/993drishti_ias_Chabahar_Route.jpg" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><strong>&nbsp;</strong></a></li>
<li>The delivery of the cargos will be carried out under the <strong>International Road Transports&rsquo; TIR (Transports Internationaux Routiers)</strong> convention.</li>
<li>The port is crucial for India&rsquo;s connectivity to Afghanistan apart from an air corridor that becomes operationalized in 2017.</li>
<li>For&nbsp;India, Chabahar provides <strong>access to Central Asia</strong> and<strong> International North-South Transport Corridor</strong> that connects Mumbai to Moscow.</li>
<li>The port is also<strong> important for landlocked Afghanistan</strong> which is keen to get connect itself with international markets.</li>
<li>The bilateral trade between India and Afghanistan jumped by 40% in 2018-19 and has crossed USD 1 billion, with imports from Afghanistan accounting or USD 740 Million.</li>
<li>Afghanistan has a huge trade surplus with India, the only country with which Afghanistan has a trade surplus.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Bandipur National Park<strong></strong></h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Recently,&nbsp;<strong>NASA&rsquo;s Fire Information for Resource Management System (NASA-FIRMS)</strong>&nbsp;has detected 32 fire incidents in Himavad Gopalaswamy Betta range of Bandipur National Park.</li>
<li>Bandipur National Park is located between where the <strong>Deccan Plateau meets the Western Ghats in Karnataka.</strong></li>
<li>It is part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve with the adjoining Nagarhole National Park, Mudumalai National Park, and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary.</li>
<li>It has a variety of biomes including dry deciduous forests moist deciduous forests and shrublands.</li>
<li>The park is flanked by the Kabini river in the north and the Moyar river in the south. The Nugu river runs through the park.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>NASA's Fire Information for Resource Management System (FIRMS)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>NASA's Fire Information for Resource Management System (FIRMS) distributes Near-Real-Time (NRT) active fire data within 3 hours of satellite overpass from NASA's Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) and NASA's Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite (VIIRS).</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Pradhan Mantri Kisan Samman Nidhi (PM-KISAN)</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Prime-minister launched <strong>PM-KISAN</strong> scheme from Gorakhpur in Uttar Pradesh.</li>
<li>Under PM-KISAN, vulnerable landholding farmer families, <strong>having cultivable land up-to 2 hectares,</strong> will be provided <strong>direct income support at the rate of Rs. 6,000 per year.</strong></li>
<li>This income support will be<strong> transferred directly into the bank accounts of beneficiary farmers</strong>, in three equal<strong> installments of Rs. 2,000 each.</strong></li>
<li>This programme is under the aegis of <strong>Ministry of Agriculture and Farmers Welfare</strong> and aims to <strong>address farm sector distress,</strong> caused by lower sales realization on bumper production of food-grains, oilseeds, sugarcane, cotton and horticulture crops.</li>
<li>State Government and UT Administration will identify the farmer families which are eligible for support as per scheme guidelines.</li>
<li>This programme will entail an <strong>annual expenditure of Rs.75,000 crore which will be funded by the Government of India.</strong> Around 12 crore small and marginal farmer families are expected to benefit from this.</li>
</ul>',
		'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
		'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/important-fact-for-prelims-25th-february-2019'
	],
	(int) 15 => [
		'title' => 'Wake up to Children’s Exposure to Pesticides',
		'catname' => 'News Editorials',
		'desc' => '<div class="border">
<p>(The editorial is based on the article &ldquo;Wake up to Children&rsquo;s Exposure to Pesticides&rdquo; which appeared in The Hindu for 25th February 2019. In this article, we will discuss the issues related to the early exposure of children to pesticides.)</p>
</div>
<p>Children need striving environment for growth.<strong> Now- a -days younger generation is falling sick frequently than the previous generation.</strong> The problem may become worse in the upcoming days. Doctors are of the opinion that since our children are growing up in heavily polluted cities, they are more prone to asthma and other infections.</p>
<p>Apart from above-mentioned reasons, there is another factor that young parents need to worry about &mdash; <strong>early exposure of children to pesticides.</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A recent study published in the PLOS Journal of Medicine establishes that <strong>prenatal exposure to organophosphates puts children at risk of reduced IQs, memory, attention deficits, and autism.</strong></li>
<li><strong>There is no evidence of a safe level of organophosphate pesticide exposure for children.</strong> Well before birth, organophosphate pesticides are disrupting the brain in its earliest stages, putting them on track for difficulties in learning, memory, and attention, effects which may not appear until they reach school-age.</li>
</ul>
<h3>What are Organophosphates (OP)?</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>T<strong>hese are a group of chemicals that were initially developed as human nerve agents during the 1930s and 1940s, to be used by the Nazis during the war</strong>. These were later adapted as insecticides.</li>
<li><strong>OPs are ubiquitous &mdash; a group of pesticides which is rampantly used in agriculture, gardens, pest control in homes and offices.</strong> Once OPs are sprayed on food crops, they find their way into the food chain. OPs have been detected in ghee, butter, honey, and soft drinks.</li>
<li>OPs have also been <strong>known to leach into water bodies close to agricultural fields</strong>. This varied exposure from different sources leads to bioaccumulation in our bodies.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Concerns</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In 2018, Scientists at the National Institute of Nutrition Hyderabad studied urine samples of children for the presence of OPs. They found that urine samples of Hyderabad children contained 10 to 40 times more OPs as compared to children in the US and Europe.</li>
<li><strong>Indian children are more prone to the risks of organophosphates exposure.</strong></li>
<li>Children are also more vulnerable because their bodies&rsquo; natural detoxification systems are immature and hence they are slower in eliminating pesticides from their bodies, compared to adults. <strong>The government has done very little here.</strong></li>
<li><strong>Close to 40 kinds of OPs are allowed in India.</strong> The Verma committee had suggested restricting/withdrawing some of these OPs.</li>
<li>However, not much progress has taken place since the committee submitted its report in 2015. Several thousand tonnes of pesticides, including OPs, are sprayed annually.</li>
<li><strong>Quite a few of these OPs like monocrotophos, malathion, and chlorpyrifos have been classified as highly to moderately hazardous by the WHO.</strong> Many of these are banned or their use severely restricted in several countries, including the US and those in the EU.</li>
<li><strong>Several studies have found that OPs are indiscriminately being used in India even on fruits and vegetables for which they have not been approved.</strong> The government has not just allowed these chemicals in the country but has not taken any steps to inform the public.</li>
<li><strong>Pest control in India is highly disorganized and least regulated; most times, the agencies are not even aware of the constituents in the concoction.</strong> This is beside millions of people including pregnant women working on farms and being continually exposed to these pesticides.</li>
<li><strong>In India, there is a scarcity of information on the magnitude of both intentional and unintentional poisoning, as well as on the relative importance of different pesticides.</strong></li>
</ul>
<h3>Way Forward</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>The licenses to manufacture and sell pesticides were granted 40 years ago</strong>. Now we have plenty of new scientific data on the impact of these on children and adults &mdash; enough to revoke many of these licenses.</li>
<li><strong>The government needs to examine all licensed pesticides and their health impacts.</strong></li>
<li>There is a need to review and recommend improved pesticide regulatory policies. Implementing sustainable epidemiological surveillance and monitoring of pesticide poisoning in clinical settings and communities is the next step ahead.</li>
<li><strong>Improving the medical management and mental health care of people with pesticide poisoning in health</strong> care facilities at different levels is needed. Capacity building should be done at different sectors and levels along with the sensitization on the issue.</li>
<li>Community programmes that minimize the risks of intentional and unintentional pesticide poisoning should be developed or strengthened.</li>
<li><strong>Government officials, in their decision-making, need to promote the sustainable use of chemicals.</strong></li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p style="text-align: center;"><strong>List of International Chemical Conventions</strong></p>
<p>There are many international chemical conventions restricting or even banning the production, use, and trade of certain hazardous chemicals for the purpose of protecting human health and the environment.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs):</strong> is an international treaty to protect human health and the environment from the harmful effects of POPs. The Convention was adopted on 22 May 2001 in Stockholm, Sweden and entered into force on 17 May 2004.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India&rsquo;s Union Cabinet gave its approval to ratify and accede to the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants on 20 October 2005.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade:</strong> is an international treaty promoting shared responsibility between exporting and importing countries in protecting human health and the environment from certain banned or restricted hazardous chemicals and pesticides, and providing a mechanism for the exchange of information about potentially hazardous chemicals.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>The Convention was adopted on 10 September 1998 in Rotterdam, the Netherlands and entered into force on 24 February 2004.</li>
<li>India has ratified the Convention in 2005.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal:</strong> is an international treaty aiming to protect human health and the environment against the adverse effects of hazardous wastes. The convention was adopted on 22 March 1989 and entered into force on 5 May 1992. More than 180 states have become parties to the Convention.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India ratified the Convention on June 24, 1992.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>The Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC)</strong> is an arms control treaty prohibiting the development, production, acquisition, stockpiling, retention, transfer or use of chemical weapons by States Parties. It is administered by the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons (OPCW) and entered into force in 1997.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India is a signatory and party to the Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC).</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>The Minamata Convention on Mercury</strong> is a global treaty to protect human health and the environment from the adverse effects of mercury and its compounds. It was agreed at the fifth session of the Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee in Geneva, Switzerland 2013. More than 140 countries including India have ratified the Convention.</li>
<li><strong>The United Nations Convention</strong> against Illicit Traffic in Narcotic Drugs and Psychotropic Substances of 1988 entered into force on November 11, 1990. This Convention provides comprehensive measures against drug trafficking, including provisions against money laundering and the diversion of precursors chemicals.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India is one among the signatories.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>The Chemicals Convention</strong> concerning Safety in the use of Chemicals at Work was promulgated by the International Labor Organization (ILO) in 1990 and entered into force on 04 Nov 1993. The Convention protects workers from the harmful effects of chemicals in the workplace.</li>
<li><strong>The Strategic Approach to International Chemicals Management (SAICM)</strong> is a policy framework to promote chemical safety around the world. SAICM has as its overall objective the achievement of the sound management of chemicals throughout their life cycle so that, by 2020, chemicals are produced and used in ways that minimize significant adverse impacts on human health and the environment.</li>
</ul>
</div>',
		'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
		'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-editorials/wake-up-to-childrens-exposure-to-pesticides'
	],
	(int) 16 => [
		'title' => 'Cross-Border Terrorism',
		'catname' => 'Paper 3',
		'desc' => '<h3>Why in News?</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>On 14 February 2019, suicide bombing attack on a CRPF convoy in the Pulwama district of Jammu and Kashmir has killed 40 security personnel.</li>
<li>Pakistan based terrorist group Jaish-e-Mohammad has claimed the responsibility for the attack.</li>
<li>Cross-border terrorism remains a core concern for India. According to parliamentary report 323 infiltration bids have been made by terrorists from across the border in 2018.</li>
</ul>
<h3>What is Cross-Border Terrorism?</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The term &lsquo;cross-border&rsquo; implies a movement or an activity across a border between the two countries.</li>
<li>Cross-Border Terrorism is a form in which soil of one country is used to create terror in bordering countries.</li>
<li>As a grey zone conflict, it is an undeclared war and considered to be highest form of strategy to bleed a nation for prolonged period by small efforts.</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>The Prevention of Terrorism Act, 2002</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>It defines terrorist activity as one which intents to threaten the unity, integrity, security or sovereignty of India or strike terror in the minds of people.</li>
<li>It can either be created through explosive or lethal weapons or any other substance of hazardous nature to cause death of or injuries to any person and destruction of any property.</li>
<li>It is a systematic use of violence against civilians for intimidating a population or government for political, religious, or ideological goals.</li>
<li>Cross Border Terrorism includes unconventional tactics like cyber attacks, political warfare, perception war, sponsorship of armed proxy fighters etc.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Factors Facilitating Cross-Border Incursion</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Porous Border</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India's borders with most neighbours are porous (not protected) which are extremely easy to cross.</li>
<li>These borders cannot be physically wired due to complex geographical features such as mountains, deserts and other landforms.</li>
<li>This complexity makes these borders difficult to protect by security forces.</li>
<li>Moreover Border management in India has been characterised by security ambivalence and lack of strategic thinking.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Support from Non-State Actors</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>India has a discordant political relationship with Pakistan which provide material support for secessionist militants in the border states of North-East and Jammu and Kashmir.</li>
<li>Pakistan facilitates movement of its proxies across the border with the only motive of creating terror in the minds of people of neighbouring states.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Internal Support</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Sometimes the local population support and facilitate cross border movement of terrorists by providing them conveyance and safe places to hide.</li>
<li>This could happen due to multitude of reasons such as identical ethnic affiliation, monetary requirements, fear of life, lack of education, dissatisfaction from present governance system etc.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>Corrupt officials</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Sometimes officials in exchange of few thousand rupees allow unabated entry of illegal migrants whose identities and backgrounds are little known, these channels provide scope to criminal elements to cross over to mainland India.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<p><strong>Indian Border</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India has 15,106.7 kms of land border and a coastline of 7,516.6 kms including island territories.</li>
<li>Out of the total 29 states of India except for six states (Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Telangana, Delhi and Haryana), rest all states have either maritime boundary or land border with other nations.</li>
<li>India has land borders with countries: Pakistan, Afghanistan (PoK), China, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Bangladesh.</li>
<li>India has maritime borders with seven countries: Bangladesh, Indonesia, Myanmar, Pakistan, Thailand, Sri Lanka and Maldives.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Cross-Border Terrorism in India</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>During last 15 years thousands of civilians have lost their lives in acts of terrorism, apart from thousands of defence, paramilitary and police personnel who have sacrificed their lives in the line of duty.</li>
<li>Infiltration and smuggling of narcotics, arms and weapons across the borders have been matters of constant and unmitigated anxiety to all concerned agencies manning the borders.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Indo-Pakistan Border</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Indo-Pakistan Border (3,323 Km) runs along the states of Gujarat, Rajasthan, Punjab and J&amp;K. Direct accessibility of the borders and some technological developments enabling quick passage of information and transfer of funds has changed the focus and tenor of border security.</li>
<li>Cross-Border Terrorism from Pakistan has exacerbated due to non-recognition of boundaries by its terrorist groups and their success in acquiring legitimacy due to religious or ethnic identity.</li>
<li>Inadequate Cooperation from Pakistan has made the management of border further difficult for India.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Indo-Bangladesh Border</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The Indo-Bangladesh Border (4,096 Km) passes through West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura and Mizoram.</li>
<li>The entire stretch consists of plains, riverine belts, hills &amp; jungles which make illegal migration very easy.</li>
<li>Illegal Migration across this border poses serious security threats and acts as a fertile ground for organisations like the Inter Services Intelligence of Pakistan to penetrate and expand their activities.</li>
<li>Also, poor law and order situation at the border, has led to smuggling of arms and drugs. Supply of arms help in sustaining any conflict.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Indo-China Border</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India shares a long land border with China (3,488 Km) in the Indian states of Jammu &amp; Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim and Arunachal Pradesh.</li>
<li>Although this border remains relatively aloof from illegal migrations, this border remains a cause of constant vigil for Indian forces.</li>
<li>India has a longstanding border dispute with China running back to British era in Aksai Chin and Arunachal Pradesh.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Indo-Nepal Border</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>India-Nepal Border (1,751 Km) is an open border in the sense that people of both the countries can cross it from any point, despite the existence of border check posts at several locations.</li>
<li>Anti-India organizations use this border to plant their people in the territory of India.</li>
<li>Also, smuggling of gold, small arms, drugs and fake currency helps terrorists in executing an attack.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Indo-Bhutan Border</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>This border (699 km) passes through states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, West Bengal and Sikkim.</li>
<li>Illicit establishment of camps by militant outfits in the dense jungles of south-east Bhutan helps insurgents from India in executing anti-India activities.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Indo-Myanmar Border</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The northeast states of Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizoram share the border with Myanmar (1,643).</li>
<li>Some of the insurgents groups like the National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) and ULFA operate from Myanmar, which threatens the security of India as well as Myanmar.</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Cross-Border Terrorism through Maritime Borders</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Not only contiguous Border States with land borders are vulnerable to the cross border terrorism but <strong>coastal areas are equally vulnerable</strong>.</li>
<li>Long coastline of the country remains comparatively unguarded. The presence of the Coast Guard is minimal.</li>
<li>In 26/11 attack in terrorists came from the western coast through boats.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Steps Taken by India</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>Government of India has created National Investigation Agency (NIA) in 2008 after Mumbai attacks which acts as a federal agency to combat terror.</li>
<li>Multi Agency Centre (MAC) revamped after 26/11 attacks, acts as a multi-agency intelligence coordination mechanism for counter terrorism.</li>
<li>Combating Financing of Terrorism Cell (CFT- Cell) is also created to deal with the policy matters on combating terrorist financing and Fake Indian Currency.</li>
<li>India is also a member of FATF (Financial Action Task Force) whose aim is to establish international standards for combating money laundering and terrorist financing.</li>
<li>Recently FATF puts Pakistan on &lsquo;grey-list&rsquo; over global terror finance.</li>
<li>The government has created observation posts, Border fencing, flood lighting, deployment of modern and hi-tech surveillance equipment to prevent increased immigration.</li>
<li>Comprehensive Integrated Border Management System (CIBMS) has replaced manual surveillance/patrolling of the international borders by electronic surveillance to enhance detection and interception capabilities.</li>
<li>India has been supportive of all efforts, particularly in the UN to combat terrorism and has played a leading role in shaping international opinion and urging the international community to prioritize the fight against terror.</li>
<li>India since 1996 is trying to push a global intergovernmental convention i.e. Comprehensive Convention on International Terrorism (CCIT) to tackle terrorism. It can provide a legal framework to enhance prosecution and extradition of terrorists.</li>
<li>Continuous dialogues with neighbouring countries have been initiated from time to time for motivating them for a strict action against terrorists breeding in their respective territories.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Way Forward</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>There is a need to reassess our policies on number of issues pertaining to the management of India&rsquo;s international borders such as intelligence apparatus, internal security and border management.</li>
<li>Technical solutions are necessary to augment and complement the traditional methods of border guarding.</li>
<li>They not only enhance the surveillance and detection capabilities of the border guarding forces but also improve the impact of the border guarding personnel against infiltration and trans-border crimes.</li>
<li>India should move in the direction of specialisation of military to fight cross-border terrorism.</li>
<li>Military should also look at alternative means to strike at the terror camps across the LoC and LAC through mechanisms like Precision Engagement Capability.</li>
<li>A judicious mix of properly trained manpower and affordable and tested technology is likely to yield better results.</li>
<li>War against terrorism is a low intensity conflict or localized war and cannot be waged without the full and unstinted support of the society and can be lost easily if the morale and resolve of the society to fight against terrorism falters.</li>
</ul>
<p><a href="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/327Drishti_ias_Crossborder-Terrorism.png" target="_blank" rel="noopener"><img class="content-img" src="http://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/327Drishti_ias_Crossborder-Terrorism.png" /></a></p>',
		'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
		'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/to-the-points/paper3/cross-border-terrorism'
	],
	(int) 17 => [
		'title' => 'Without Land or Recourse',
		'catname' => 'News Editorials',
		'desc' => '<p>(The editorial is based on the article &ldquo;Without Land or Recourse&rdquo; which appeared in Indian Express on 21st February 2019. In this article, we will discuss the issues related to the recent order of the Supreme Court.)</p>
<p>There is an ongoing concern that recent Supreme Court order may lead to the eviction of lakhs of persons belonging to the Scheduled Tribes (STs) and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFDs) categories across 21 States. The Supreme Court has recently rejected their claim as forest dwellers under the <a href="/daily-updates/daily-news-analysis/forest-dwellers-face-eviction" target="_blank" rel="noopener">Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006</a>, or FRA. That this order negates the claims of citizens under the special protection of the Constitution, viz. the Scheduled Tribes and other vulnerable communities already pushed by gross governmental neglect precariously to the edge, is another matter altogether.</p>
<h3>Background</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The court&rsquo;s orders came in a case filed by wildlife groups questioning the validity of the Forest Rights Act.</li>
<li>Some wildlife NGOs, like petitioner Bangalore-based Wildlife First, believe the law is against the Constitution and it has led to deforestation.</li>
<li>The order in question was issued in the case of Wildlife First &amp; Ors v. Ministry of Forest and Environment &amp; Ors.</li>
<li>The details regarding claims made under the FRA that were placed before the court by the petitioner in 2016 showed that of the 44 lakh claims filed before appropriate authorities in the different States, 20.5 lakh claims (46.5%) were rejected.</li>
<li>A claim is made either for individual or community rights by the people/communities covered by the FRA. This is a plain reading of the Act, which is unambiguous on this score.</li>
<li>The States were then asked by the Supreme Court to report on concrete measures taken to evict the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers from the forest.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Concerns</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>In the present order of February 2019, the Supreme Court specifically directs governments in 21 States by name to carry out evictions of rejected claimants without further delay and report on or before July 12. This attracts several questions which are of immediate concern.</li>
<li>According to the 2014 report of the High-Level Committee on Socio-Economic, Health and Educational Status of Tribal Communities in India, constituted by the Government of India (Xaxa Committee), 60% of the forest area in the country is in tribal areas &mdash; protected by Article 19 (5) and Schedules V and VI of the Constitution.</li>
<li>Claims are being rejected without assigning reasons, or based on wrong interpretation of the Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (OTFD) definition and the &lsquo;dependence&rsquo; clause, or simply for lack of evidence or &lsquo;absence of GPS survey&rsquo;.</li>
<li>The land is wrongly considered as &lsquo;not forest land&rsquo;, or because only forest <g class="gr_ gr_71 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling multiReplace" id="71" data-gr-id="71">offence</g> receipts are considered as adequate evidence.</li>
<li>The mere rejection of claims by the state, therefore, does not add up to a finding of the crime of &ldquo;encroachment&rdquo; &mdash; the sheer volume of rejections should instead set alarm bells ringing in the court of procedural improprieties.</li>
<li>The rejections are not being communicated to the claimants, and their right to appeal is not being explained to them nor its exercise facilitated.</li>
<li>The immediate result will be the forced eviction of over one million people belonging to the Scheduled Tribes and other forest communities.</li>
<li>Importantly, the area marked for eviction falls under areas designated under Schedule V and Schedule VI of the Constitution &mdash; there is no reference to the implications for governance in the Scheduled Areas and whether the Supreme Court, in fact, has the authority to order evictions of Scheduled Tribes from Scheduled Areas.</li>
<li>There are already obstacles in the way of including them in the general process of development.</li>
<li>Lacking the skills to survive in a competitive labor market, savvy to negotiate their way or the strength of numbers to exercise influence on political processes, the people of the PVTG will become exceedingly vulnerable.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Way Forward</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>The presence of Article 19 (5) in the Fundamental Rights chapter of the Constitution, which specifically enjoins the state to make laws &ldquo;for the protection of the interests of any Scheduled Tribe&rdquo;, is vital.</li>
<li>How has the Supreme Court ordered the eviction in complete disregard of this core and express fundamental right protection to Adivasis (as distinct from legal/statutory protection), which protects them from a range of state and non-state intrusions in Scheduled Areas as well as from the perennial threat of eviction from their <g class="gr_ gr_75 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Punctuation multiReplace" id="75" data-gr-id="75">homelands.</g></li>
<li>It is the obligation of the Supreme Court to protect the Scheduled Tribes and other vulnerable communities from the grave harms of violent dispossession.</li>
<li>The administrative structures at the cutting edge charged with the responsibilities of ensuring the well-being of the people of the PVTG <g class="gr_ gr_86 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Grammar multiReplace" id="86" data-gr-id="86">differ</g> from state to state. States like the undivided Andhra Pradesh had formed special agencies for their welfare. Madhya Pradesh has formed district level agencies for the welfare of the <g class="gr_ gr_59 gr-alert gr_spell gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim ContextualSpelling ins-del multiReplace" id="59" data-gr-id="59">PVTG</g>. In other places, the Tribal Development Commissioner or equivalent is charged with the responsibility of looking after them.</li>
<li>Instead of order for eviction, there is a need for adequate documentation and debates on this issue so that forest dwellers won't suffer because of the inefficiencies of administration.</li>
</ul>',
		'postdate' => object(Cake\I18n\FrozenTime) {},
		'url' => 'https://www.drishtiias.com/daily-updates/daily-news-editorials/without-land-or-recourse-scheduled-tribes-and-other-traditional-forest-dwellers-recognition-of-forest-rights-act-2006'
	],
	(int) 18 => [
		'title' => 'The Big Picture - Productivity and Sustainability',
		'catname' => 'Lok Sabha & Rajya Sabha Discussions',
		'desc' => '<p style="text-align: center;"><iframe width="560" height="315" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/lM-NTe8Owr4" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen="allowfullscreen"></iframe></p>
<p style="text-align: left;">National Productivity Council (NPC) celebrated &lsquo;National Productivity Week&rsquo; from February 12th to 18th, 2019.</p>
<p><strong>The theme for 2019: Circular Economy for Productivity and Sustainability.</strong> Productivity and Sustainability are interconnected in a way that inside activities of industry affect its outside environment.</p>
<div class="border-bg">
<p>DRISHTI INPUT</p>
<p><strong>National Productivity Council (NPC)</strong></p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>NPC is a national level organization to promote productivity culture in India.</li>
<li>It is established by the Ministry of Industry, Government of India in 1958, it is an autonomous, multipartite, non-profit organization with equal representation from employers&rsquo; &amp; workers&rsquo; organizations and Government, apart from technical &amp; professional institutions and other interests.</li>
<li>NPC is a constituent of the Tokyo-based Asian Productivity Organisation (APO), an Intergovernmental Body, of which the Government of India is a founder member.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>What is the Circular Economy?</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>It is an economy where products are designed for durability, reuse and recyclability and thus almost everything gets reused, remanufactured, and, recycled into a raw material or used as a source of energy.</strong></li>
<li>It includes <strong>3 R&rsquo;s (Reduce, Reuse and Recycle), Refurbishment, Recover, and Repairing of materials.</strong> Hence, Circular Economy focuses on increasing productivity in terms of more efficient utilization of resources.</li>
<li>For Example: If a person is planning to discard his/her mobile, it can be given to someone else (i.e. giving the mobile second life-REUSE), rather than throwing it just like that. Once the mobile reaches its end of life, it can be ensured that everything embedded in it, aluminum, copper, plastic etc. should be brought back to production cycle so that the circle of the economy gets completed.</li>
<li><strong>Currently, most of the countries follow a linear process in which raw materials are taken from the environment, turn in to new products which are then disposed of after use.</strong></li>
<li>Germany and Japan have used it as a binding principle for reorganizing its economy, whereas China even has a law on it.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Benefits for Industry</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Circular Economy fulfills the need for raw materials required by industries, especially the manufacturing industries.</strong> The output produced by industries in a circular economy comes back to the industries in the form of input, for e.g. when parts of mobile will be segregated, copper and aluminum will become raw materials for some industries.</li>
<li><strong>Also, the circular economy focuses on efficient utilization of resources which helps industries in earning cash profits equivalent to 3-5% of their turnover.</strong> Ultimately, QCDF (Quality, Cost, Delivery, and Flexibility) and sustainability level of industries get improved.</li>
</ul>
<h3>Benefits of Circular Economy</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>For Environment:</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>Millions of Tonnes of Waste gets generated in countries.</strong> Circular Economy solves the problem of disposal of waste by converting waste into raw materials.</li>
<li>Besides the problem of solid waste management, the circular economy also solves the problem of air pollution, water pollution, and land pollution.</li>
</ul>
</li>
<li><strong>For Consumers:</strong>
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li><strong>The products in the circular economy are more cost effective for consumers as they tend to be more efficient</strong>, besides having a longer shelf life.</li>
<li>Increased Efficiency leads to a reduction in the cost of maintenance as well as that of disposal, which otherwise a consumer has to incur in a huge amount.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<h3>Circular Economy and India</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>India has a huge potential for reuse and recycling</strong> as less than 10-15% of the total waste generated goes into the recycling process. Circular Economy will boost the reuse and recycling of materials.</li>
<li>To start with, <strong>sectors like construction, agriculture and vehicle and mobility can be considered</strong> as they are going to get the largest growth in coming years and thus India will be able to save more than Rs. 40 lakh Crore by 2030.</li>
<li><strong>India is already on its path to the circular economy</strong>. Initiatives of NPC and government show that. &lsquo;Digital India&rsquo; Program contains a significant component of the recycling of electronic wastes. Swachh Bharat Mission is also about making wealth out of wastes.</li>
<li>To further provide a boost to a circular economy in India, a<strong> policy framework on the same is </strong><g class="gr_ gr_89 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Grammar only-ins replaceWithoutSep" id="89" data-gr-id="89">need</g><strong> of the hour.</strong></li>
<li>Also, Manufacturing Sector, especially MSMEs can help a lot in transformation towards a circular economy. The sector should <strong>&lsquo;DECIDE&rsquo; i.e</strong>.
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>Designing processes for refurbishment and easy cycling.</li>
<li>Educating masses on Circular Economy and its benefits.</li>
<li>Preparation of Collaborative Models for smooth implementation of Circular Economy.</li>
<li>Innovating Products for circularity.</li>
<li>Digitization for transparency, virtualization, dematerialization, and feedback <g class="gr_ gr_90 gr-alert gr_gramm gr_inline_cards gr_run_anim Grammar multiReplace" id="90" data-gr-id="90">driven</g> intelligence for saving resources.</li>
<li>Energy-Efficient for environmental sustainability.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>
<p><strong>Resources in the world are finite. The circular economy will help the inefficient utilization of resources.</strong> Mindset is the key for implementation of Circular Economy. Countries need to think about what they are taking from the environment and what they are contributing to it. They also need to ensure that the material gets recycled or reused before it turns into waste.</p>',
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	],
	(int) 19 => [
		'title' => 'RBI to Merge Three Categories of NBFCs',
		'catname' => 'News Analysis',
		'desc' => '<p>The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) has decided to merge three categories of Non Banking Financial Companies (NBFCs) into a single category to provide greater operational flexibility to non-banking lenders.</p>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>NBFCs categorized as Asset Finance Companies (AFC), Loan Companies (LCs) and Investment Companies (ICs), will be merged into a new category called NBFC - Investment and Credit Company (NBFC-ICC).</li>
</ul>
</ul>
<div class="border-bg">
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li><strong>Asset Finance Company (AFC)</strong> : An AFC is a company which is a financial institution focussing on financing of physical assets supporting productive/economic activity, such as automobiles, tractors, generator sets etc.</li>
<li><strong>Investment Company (IC)</strong> : IC means any company which is a financial institution carrying on as its principal business the acquisition of securities.</li>
<li><strong>Loan Company (LC)</strong>: LC means any company which is a financial institution carrying on as its principal business the providing of finance whether by making loans or advances or otherwise for any activity other than its own but does not include an Asset Finance Company.</li>
</ul>
</div>
<h3>Non-Banking Financial Company (NBFC)</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>A Non-Banking Financial Company (NBFC) is a <strong>company registered under the Companies Act, 1956</strong> engaged in the business of loans and advances, acquisition of shares/stocks/bonds/debentures/securities issued by Government or local authority or other marketable securities of a like nature.</li>
<li>NBFC <strong>does not</strong> include any institution whose <strong>principal business</strong> is that of<strong> agriculture activity</strong>,<strong> industrial activity</strong>, <strong>purchase or sale of any goods</strong> (other than securities) or providing any services and sale/purchase/construction of immovable property.</li>
<li>A non-banking institution which is a company and has principal business of receiving deposits under any scheme or arrangement in one lump sum or in installments by way of contributions or in any other manner, is also a non-banking financial company (Residuary non-banking company).</li>
</ul>
<h3>Difference between banks &amp; NBFCs</h3>
<ul style="list-style-type: square;">
<li>NBFCs lend and make investments and hence their activities are akin to that of banks; however there are a few differences as given below:
<ul style="list-style-type: circle;">
<li>NBFC <strong>cannot accept demand deposits</strong>;</li>
<li>NBFCs <strong>do not form part of the payment and settlement system</strong> and cannot issue cheques drawn on itself;</li>
<li><strong>Deposit insurance facility of Deposit Insurance and Credit Guarantee Corporation is not available</strong> to depositors of NBFCs, unlike in case of banks.</li>
</ul>
</li>
</ul>',
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		'articles__publishon' => 'datetime',
		'articles.publishon' => 'datetime',
		'publishon' => 'datetime',
		'articles__posturl' => 'string',
		'articles.posturl' => 'string',
		'posturl' => 'string',
		'articles__metatitle' => 'string',
		'articles.metatitle' => 'string',
		'metatitle' => 'string',
		'articles__metadescription' => 'string',
		'articles.metadescription' => 'string',
		'metadescription' => 'string',
		'articles__metakeyword' => 'text',
		'articles.metakeyword' => 'text',
		'metakeyword' => 'text',
		'articles__status' => 'integer',
		'articles.status' => 'integer',
		'status' => 'integer',
		'articles__sort_order' => 'integer',
		'articles.sort_order' => 'integer',
		'sort_order' => 'integer',
		'articles__addedby' => 'integer',
		'articles.addedby' => 'integer',
		'addedby' => 'integer',
		'articles__updatedby' => 'integer',
		'articles.updatedby' => 'integer',
		'updatedby' => 'integer',
		'articles__added' => 'timestamp',
		'articles.added' => 'timestamp',
		'added' => 'timestamp',
		'articles__modified' => 'timestamp',
		'articles.modified' => 'timestamp',
		'modified' => 'timestamp',
		'articles__whatsnewid' => 'integer',
		'articles.whatsnewid' => 'integer',
		'whatsnewid' => 'integer',
		'articles__display_printpdf' => 'integer',
		'articles.display_printpdf' => 'integer',
		'display_printpdf' => 'integer',
		'articles__display_comments' => 'integer',
		'articles.display_comments' => 'integer',
		'display_comments' => 'integer',
		'articles__pdf_name' => 'string',
		'articles.pdf_name' => 'string',
		'pdf_name' => 'string',
		'articles__display_archive' => 'integer',
		'articles.display_archive' => 'integer',
		'display_archive' => 'integer'
	],
	'decorators' => (int) 0,
	'executed' => false,
	'hydrate' => true,
	'buffered' => true,
	'formatters' => (int) 0,
	'mapReducers' => (int) 0,
	'contain' => [],
	'matching' => [],
	'extraOptions' => [],
	'repository' => object(App\Model\Table\ArticlesTable) {}

}
$page = (int) 241
$search = 'class'
$totalPages = (float) 303
$title = 'Search'
$lastyear = (int) 2018
$year = '2021'
$i = (int) 2017
$selected = ''
$m = (int) 13
$month = 'December'

include - ROOT/plugins/Drishti/src/Template/Element/rightsection.ctp, line 100
Cake\View\View::_evaluate() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 1196
Cake\View\View::_render() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 1157
Cake\View\View::_renderElement() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 1554
Cake\View\View::element() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 668
include - ROOT/plugins/Drishti/src/Template/Element/articlebox.ctp, line 5
Cake\View\View::_evaluate() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 1196
Cake\View\View::_render() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 1157
Cake\View\View::_renderElement() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 1554
Cake\View\View::element() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 668
include - ROOT/plugins/Drishti/src/Template/Search/index.ctp, line 85
Cake\View\View::_evaluate() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 1196
Cake\View\View::_render() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 1157
Cake\View\View::render() - CORE/src/View/View.php, line 765
Cake\Controller\Controller::render() - CORE/src/Controller/Controller.php, line 623
Cake\Http\ActionDispatcher::_invoke() - CORE/src/Http/ActionDispatcher.php, line 125
Cake\Http\ActionDispatcher::dispatch() - CORE/src/Http/ActionDispatcher.php, line 93

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