Q. Compare and contrast the Permanent Settlement and the Ryotwari Settlement introduced by the British in India. How did these land revenue systems impact agrarian society and the overall economy? (250 words)

17 Mar, 2025 GS Paper 1 History

Approach

  • Introduce the answer by briefing about British land revenue settlements
  • Comparison of Key Features of Permanent Settlement and the Ryotwari Settlement
  • Highlight their Impact on Agrarian Society and Economy
  • Conclude by mentioning their outcome.

Introduction

The British introduced different land revenue systems in India to maximize revenue collection and establish administrative control. The Permanent Settlement (1793) was introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal and Bihar, while the Ryotwari Settlement (1820) was implemented by Thomas Munro in Madras and Bombay Presidencies.

Body

Comparison of Key Features:

Feature Permanent Settlement (Zamindari System) Ryotwari Settlement
Introduction 1793 by Lord Cornwallis 1820 by Thomas Munro
Coverage 19% of British India (Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, Varanasi, Madras' Northern districts) 51% of British India (Madras, Bombay, parts of Karnataka)
Ownership of Land Zamindars (landlords) were recognized as hereditary owners Peasants (ryots) were recognized as hereditary owners
Revenue Collection Fixed and permanent revenue, collected by Zamindars Revenue directly collected from peasants, periodically revised (every 20-30 years)
Revenue Share 10/11th to the British, 1/11th to Zamindars Up to 50% of surplus crop yield to the British
Flexibility in Taxation No revision allowed (fixed revenue) Periodic revision based on land productivity and conditions
Default Consequences Land confiscated and auctioned if Zamindars failed to pay revenue Peasants were forced to pay, leading to debt traps and land loss
Role of Intermediaries Rise of sub-feudalism, creation of a hierarchy of landlords (absentee landlordism) Presence of revenue officers (Poligars, Mirasidars) who exploited peasants

Impact on Agrarian Society and Economy

  • Impact on Zamindars and Peasants
    • Permanent Settlement created a class of powerful Zamindars, leading to subinfeudation (multiple layers of landlords). Peasants were reduced to tenants, often subjected to excessive rent and oppression.
    • Ryotwari Settlement recognized peasants as landowners, but the burden of revenue collection fell directly on them, leading to debt traps and extreme poverty due to high and inflexible taxation.
  • Impact on Agriculture
    • Permanent Settlement led to stagnation in agricultural productivity as Zamindars had no incentive to improve land quality. High taxation and absentee landlordism caused declining soil fertility (notably in Bengal).
    • The Ryotwari Settlement initially encouraged cash crops (like cotton) for British industries, reducing food grain supply and causing inflation. However, excessive taxation made agriculture unprofitable, leading to land abandonment.
  • Economic Impact
    • Permanent Settlement provided stable revenue to the British, but they later regretted not including a revision clause to increase revenue.
    • Ryotwari Settlement, despite being based on land assessment, led to high taxation, forcing peasants into moneylender debt, culminating in revolts like the Deccan Riot of 1875.

Resistance and Consequences:

  • Permanent Settlement caused Zamindari distress, as many lost land due to revenue defaults. Peasant exploitation worsened, leading to resentment.
  • Ryotwari Settlement faced peasant uprisings due to unbearable tax burdens, forcing the British to investigate oppressive revenue collection (e.g., Madras Torture Commission, 1885).

Conclusion

Permanent Settlement strengthened Zamindars at the cost of peasants and agricultural growth, while Ryotwari Settlement directly burdened peasants, leading to widespread poverty and revolts. Both systems failed to ensure agrarian prosperity and contributed to India's colonial economic decline.