India’s Foundational Literacy and Numeracy Crisis

For Prelims: National Education Policy  (NEP) 2020,  Foundational Literacy and Numeracy, World Bank, NIPUN Bharat Mission 

For Mains: Education Sector Reforms in India (NEP 2020), Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) & Learning Poverty, Governance and Accountability in Education

Source: TH 

Why in News? 

Despite improved school enrolment and policy emphasis under the National Education Policy  (NEP) 2020, as highlighted by the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER), India continues to face a serious learning crisis, with millions of children attending school but lacking Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN), reflecting a concerning lack of urgency in improving learning outcomes.

Summary 

• India faces a serious FLN crisis despite strong policy support (NEP 2020, NIPUN Bharat), with many children in school lacking basic reading and numeracy skills due to weak accountability, poor pedagogy, and low ground-level urgency. 
• Addressing the crisis requires shifting focus from enrollment to learning outcomes through better teaching practices, community awareness (salience), and strengthened institutional accountability.

What is the Status of Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) in India? 

• About:  FLN refers to a child’s ability to read simple sentences with meaning and solve basic math problems by the end of Class 3.  
  • These are critical gateway skills that help children learn meaningfully in higher classes and help them acquire 21st Century skills like critical thinking and problem solving which are imperative to succeed in the long run. 
• Status of FLN in India:  Despite being identified as the highest priority under the NEP 2020, a large proportion of children at the elementary level still lack basic learning skills.  
  • According to the Annual Status of Education Report (ASER) by NGO Pratham Foundation,  the share of Grade 3 students in government schools able to read a Grade 2-level text has improved only marginally from 16.3% in 2022 to 23.4% in 2024, reflecting slow progress and a persistent challenge in achieving universal FLN by 2026–27. 
  • The World Bank defines learning poverty as the inability to read and understand a simple text by age 10. India faces a high rate of learning poverty (around 55%), which was further exacerbated by the Covid-19 pandemic. 
• Policy Frameworks for FLN: 
  • National Education Policy (NEP) 2020: Explicitly identifies FLN as a foundational national priority, mandating that every child achieves basic literacy and numeracy by the end of Grade 3, recognising this as the prerequisite for all further learning. 
  • NIPUN Bharat Mission: Specifically launched in 2021  to ensure that every child in the country necessarily attains Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) by the end of Grade 3, by 2026-27. 
  • Samagra Shiksha Abhiyan: An overarching program for the school education sector extending from pre-school to class 12, focusing on improving the quality of education. 
  • PM SHRI (PM Schools for Rising India): A centrally sponsored scheme to upgrade and develop more than 14,500 schools to showcase the implementation of the NEP 2020 and emerge as exemplary schools. 
  • DIKSHA (Digital Infrastructure for Knowledge Sharing): A national platform for school education providing quality e-content for teachers and students.

What are the Causes for the FLN Crisis in India? 

• The Absence of 'Salience': Systems do not reform merely because policies are well-drafted or funds are allocated. They change when society collectively recognizes a problem and demands action- a concept known as salience. 
  • Countries like Vietnam outperform richer nations in educational outcomes without superior infrastructure simply because learning has high salience; they actually want their students to learn.  
  • In India, this shared recognition is critically weak at the grassroots level. 
• Misplaced Grassroots Priorities: While the NEP 2020 and the NIPUN Bharat Mission establish FLN as an urgent priority on paper, ground-level urgency is non-existent.  
  • School Management Committees and Parent-Teacher Meetings remain fixated on tangible inputs (buildings, toilets, and staff vacancies) entirely ignoring the cognitive disaster of whether the children can actually read or understand basic texts. 
• Weak Accountability: Power asymmetry in the education system leaves children without a voice and parents without assessment tools, while centralised control and reduced community pressure weaken accountability. 
  • Learning is often seen as the child’s or family’s responsibility rather than a systemic issue, weakening focus on pedagogy, curriculum, and institutional reforms. 
  • Admitting the FLN crisis is difficult for institutions and political actors, as it questions past achievements in enrolment and access. 
• Pedagogical and Structural Issues: Teachers prioritise syllabus completion over understanding, leaving weaker students behind.  
  • Multi-grade classrooms and heavy non-academic duties further reduce effective teaching and personalised learning. 
• Cognitive and Linguistic Barriers: Children are often taught in a non-mother tongue, making early learning difficult.  
  • At the same time, malnutrition and anemia impair cognitive development, affecting attention and learning ability. 
• Socio-Economic Inequality (‘Class Apartheid’): A large number of students in India are first-generation learners with no academic support at home, while the exit of the middle class from government schools weakens accountability, leading to systemic neglect. 

What Measures can Strengthen Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN) in India?

• Making Learning Visible to Parents: Develop simple, easy-to-understand metrics at the community level so parents can test their children and demand better learning outcomes from schools and local governments (Panchayats). 
• Shift from Syllabus Completion to Competency: Teachers are often pressured to "finish the syllabus."  
  • The focus must shift to "teaching at the right level" (TaRL), ensuring children master foundational concepts before moving to complex ones. 
  • Tools like Bhashini should be utilized to generate high-quality Teaching-Learning Materials (TLMs) in hyper-local dialects, instantly bridging the gap between state-mandated curriculums and localized comprehension. 
• Transition to Play-Based Learning: Move away from rigid, textbook-centric rote memorization. The deployment of resources like the Jadui Pitara (magic box of play-based learning materials) must be scaled aggressively to make early learning intuitive and engaging, fostering cognitive curiosity rather than fear. 
• Empowering and Training Teachers: Teachers must be freed from non-academic administrative burdens (like election duties) and provided with continuous, modern pedagogical training. 
• Formative Assessments: Moving away from high-stakes summative exams to low-stakes, continuous formative assessments to identify learning gaps early and provide remedial support. 
• Generate Grassroots 'Salience': School Management Committees (SMCs) and local Panchayats must be retrained to evaluate schools not by the quality of the building, but by FLN metrics.  
  • When parents and local leaders demand reading fluency as a basic right, institutional apathy is forced to dissolve.

Conclusion 

Resolving the FLN crisis is the ultimate test of India's demographic dividend. Without establishing this cognitive bedrock, all subsequent investments in higher education, skill development, and digital public infrastructure will fail to integrate the most marginalized populations into the formal economy. 

Drishti Mains Question:

Discuss the significance of Foundational Literacy and Numeracy in achieving India’s demographic dividend.

 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) 

1. What is Foundational Literacy and Numeracy (FLN)?
It refers to the ability to read with understanding and perform basic arithmetic byGrade 3, forming the base for all future learning. 

2. What is the objective of the NIPUN Bharat Mission?
To ensure all children achieveFLN by Grade 3 by 2026–27, aligned with NEP 2020 goals. 

3. What is ‘learning poverty’ as defined by the World Bank?
It is the inability of a child toread and understand a simple text by age 10. 

4. How did the No Detention Policy impact learning outcomes?
It led toautomatic promotion without assessment, contributing to weak foundational skills. 

5. What is ‘Teaching at the Right Level’ (TaRL)?
A pedagogical approach that groups children bylearning level rather than age/grade to improve foundational skills. 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs)

Prelims

Q. What is the aim of the programme ‘Unnat Bharat Abhiyan’? (2017)

(a) Achieving 100% literacy by promoting collaboration between voluntary organisations and the government's education system and local communities.  

(b) Connecting institutions of higher education with local communities to address development challenges through appropriate technologies.  

(c) Strengthening India’s scientific research institutions in order to make India a scientific and technological power.  

(d) Developing human capital by allocating special funds for health care and education of rural and urban poor, and organising skill development programmes and vocational training for them.  

Ans: (b) 

Q. Consider the following statements: (2018)

1. As per the Right to Education (RTE) Act, to be eligible for appointment as a teacher in a State, a person would be required to possess the minimum qualification laid down by the concerned State Council of Teacher Education.  
2. As per the RTE Act, for teaching primary classes a candidate is required to pass a Teacher Eligibility Test conducted in accordance with the National Council of Teacher Education guidelines.  
3. In India, more than 90% of teacher education institutions are directly under the State Governments.  

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?  

(a) 1 and 2  
(b) 2 only  
(c) 1 and 3  
(d) 3 only  

Ans: (b) 

---

Mains

Q. “Earn while you learn" scheme needs to be strengthened to make vocational education and skill training meaningful.” Comment.(2021)  

Q. National Education Policy (NEP) 2020 is in conformity with Sustainable Development Goal-4 (SDG-4). It intends to restructure and reorient India’s education system. Critically examine.(2020)

Safer Alternatives to Traditional Fireworks

Source: TH 

Why in News?

A devastating fireworks accident in Kerala (e.g., Mundathikode blaze) and safety concerns during festivals like Thrissur Pooram have renewed focus on safer alternatives. 

What are the Rules Governing Fireworks in India?

• Legal Framework: Governed by the Explosives Act, 1884 and Explosive Rules, 2008, regulating the manufacture, storage, sale, and use of fireworks 
• Regulatory Authority: The Petroleum and Explosives Safety Organisation (PESO), functioning under the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), Ministry of Commerce and Industry, is the nodal agency for regulating explosives. 
• Supreme Court Directives: In Arjun Gopal vs Union of India (2018), the Supreme Court banned non-certified firecrackers with barium salts and allowed only PESO-approved green crackers meeting reduced-emission standards. 
  • The court banned the manufacture, sale and use of joined firecrackers (series crackers or ‘laris’), holding that they caused “huge air, noise and solid waste problems.” 
  • In Noise Pollution (V) In Re (2005), the Supreme Court held that noise pollution violates Article 21, which guarantees the right to life and peaceful living, and accordingly imposed restrictions on noise levels and the timing of fireworks to protect public health.

Primary Concerns with Traditional Fireworks 

• Administrative & Safety Failures: Rampant illegal manufacturing (especially in hubs like Sivakasi, Tamil Nadu), unauthorized storage, lack of trained personnel, and flouting of crowd-control norms during religious and cultural festivals. 
• Health Hazards: Traditional crackers release a cocktail of toxic chemicals: 
  • Strontium (Red): Causes bone growth issues in children. 
  • Barium (Green): Leads to respiratory distress and muscle weakness. 
  • Copper (Blue): Causes endocrine disruption. 
  • Aluminium/Antimony: Leads to skin and lung irritation. 
• Environmental Impact: Massive spikes in PM2.5 and PM10 levels, contributing to the severe winter smog in Northern India. 
• Noise Pollution: Exceeds the permissible limits of the Noise Pollution (Regulation and Control) Rules, 2000, causing severe trauma to infants, the elderly, and animals. 

What is Cold Spark Technology? 

• About: Cold spark technology is an advanced pyrotechnic system that produces visual spark effects without explosions, loud noise, or heavy smoke. 
• Working Mechanism: It uses fine metal alloy powders (such as titanium and zirconium) that are heated and dispersed into the air, where they react with oxygen to create bright, sparkler-like effects. 
• Low Temperature Operation: Unlike traditional fireworks (~1200°C), it operates at much lower temperatures (60–100°C), significantly reducing fire and burn risks. 
• Environmental & Safety Benefits: It is low-noise, low-smoke, and safer for humans, animals, and urban environments, making it suitable for public events and controlled celebrations.

What are the Safer Alternatives to Traditional Fireworks? 

• Green Crackers: Developed by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research - National Environmental Engineering Research Institute (CSIR-NEERI), Green Crackers are eco-friendly alternatives that do not contain banned chemicals like barium, lithium, arsenic, or lead.  
  • They reduce emissions by 30% to 35%.  
  • The three main categories are: 
    • SWAS (Safe Water Releaser): Releases water vapor to suppress dust (PM10 and PM2.5) upon bursting. It eliminates the use of Potassium Nitrate and Sulfur. 
    • STAR (Safe Thermite Cracker): Does not comprise potassium nitrate and sulfur, emitting lesser particulate matter and reduced sound intensity. 
    • SAFAL (Safe Minimal Aluminium): Replaces aluminium with magnesium, resulting in lower particulate emissions and sound. 
• Technological & Visual Alternatives: To eliminate explosive hazards and air pollution entirely, modern technology offers spectacular visual substitutes: 
  • Drone Shows: Synchronized swarms of LED-equipped drones can create massive, dynamic 3D images in the sky. (e.g., Intel drone shows, Beating Retreat ceremony in New Delhi). 
  • Laser and Light Shows: High-powered, choreographed laser beams synchronized with music provide a visual spectacle without any physical debris, smoke, or explosive hazard. 
  • Projection Mapping: Projecting intricate, animated visuals onto large buildings, monuments, or temples to simulate the celebratory feel of fireworks. 
  • Cold Spark Machines (Sparkulars): These machines produce a shower of sparks that look like traditional fireworks but burn at a much lower temperature (around 15°C to 20°C).  
    • They are non-flammable, produce no smoke, and are safe for close-proximity and indoor use. 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) 

1. What is the legal framework governing fireworks in India? 
Fireworks are regulated under the Explosives Act, 1884 and Explosive Rules, 2008, with PESO as the nodal regulatory authority. 

2. What was held in Arjun Gopal v. Union of India? 
The Supreme Court banned barium-based firecrackers and permitted only PESO-certified green crackers to reduce pollution. 

3. How does noise pollution from fireworks relate to Article 21? 
In Noise Pollution (V) In Re, the Court held that excessive noise violates the right to life and peaceful living under Article 21. 

4. What are green crackers and how are they different? 
Developed by CSIR-NEERI, they reduce emissions by 30–35% and avoid toxic chemicals like barium, lithium, and lead. 

5. What is cold spark technology and why is it safer? 
It produces spark effects without explosions, operates at low temperatures, and generates minimal noise and smoke, making it safer for public use. 

Depreciation of the Indian Rupee

Source: TH 

The Indian Rupee (INR) has weakened beyond the 94 mark against the USD. This depreciation has been intensified by external pressures, particularly the surge in crude oil prices due to escalating tensions in West Asia, which has significantly increased import costs and weighed on the currency. 

• Currency Depreciation vs. Devaluation: Depreciation is a fall in value due to market forces (demand/supply), whereas devaluation is a deliberate downward adjustment by the government/Central Bank. 
• Causes for Depreciation of the Indian Rupee: 
  • Widening Current Account Deficit (CAD): The fundamental driver of the Rupee's prolonged weakness is the rising Current Account Deficit, heavily inflated by crude oil prices breaching the USD 100 per barrel mark. 
  • Geopolitical Supply Shocks: Uncertainties surrounding the West Asia conflict and tensions in the Strait of Hormuz are sustaining high energy prices, thereby compounding domestic inflation concerns. 
  • Capital Flight & Safe-Haven Shift: The currency depreciation is exacerbated by sustained Foreign Portfolio Investment (FPI) outflows, as global investors pull capital from emerging markets in favor of traditional safe-haven assets (like the U.S. dollar). 
  • Equity Market Contagion: The broader macroeconomic anxiety and war-related uncertainties triggered significant profit booking, causing domestic equity benchmark indices (Sensex and Nifty) to fall. 
• Managed Float Exchange Rate System: India follows a managed floating exchange rate system, where the Rupee’s value is largely determined by market forces of demand and supply, with the Reserve Bank of India (RBI) intervening occasionally to curb excessive volatility. 
  • However, such intervention has limits, as it cannot reverse long-term structural pressures like trade deficits or high oil prices, and is constrained by foreign exchange reserves, while excessive intervention can also tighten domestic liquidity and impact economic growth. 

Measures Taken by RBI to Manage Rupee Depreciation 

• It intervenes in the forex market by selling dollars from its foreign exchange reserves to reduce volatility.  
  • It may also tighten monetary policy by raising interest rates to attract foreign capital inflows and support the rupee.  
• Additionally, liquidity is managed through instruments like Open Market Operations (OMOs) and repo/reverse repo operations.
• Further, the RBI promotes foreign inflows by easing External Commercial Borrowings (ECBs).
• It also works alongside the government to curb non-essential imports and boost exports, improving the current account balance.
• These combined measures help stabilise the currency while maintaining macroeconomic stability. 

Read more: Depreciation of Indian Rupee 

Sighting of Multiple Apex Predators in Ranthambore Tiger Reserve

Source: HT 

A tiger, leopard, and cheetah were recorded within the same spatial and temporal window in Ranthambore Tiger Reserve, near the Chakal river, within an approximate 1–2 km radius, constituting a highly uncommon and ecologically significant overlap of apex predators. 

• Such coexistence is atypical due to niche partitioning, wherein species minimise interspecific competition by differentiating habitat use, prey selection, and temporal activity patterns. 
• The convergence is best interpreted as a transient ecological coincidence, likely driven by factors such as prey movement, dispersal dynamics, and landscape connectivity, rather than stable cohabitation. 

Behavioural Ecology of Three Predators 

• Cheetah: A predominantly diurnal predator adapted to open habitats, relying on high-speed pursuit rather than ambush or strength. 
• Tiger: A solitary and territorially dominant apex predator, exerting ecological control over large landscapes and often limiting the presence of subordinate carnivores. 
• Leopard: An ecologically flexible mesopredator that spatially and temporally adjusts its behaviour—often becoming more nocturnal and retreating to rugged terrain—to avoid direct competition with tigers.

Ranthambore Tiger Reserve

• About: It is located in the Sawai Madhopur district, Rajasthan, nestled between the Aravalli and Vindhya hill ranges.  
  • RTR includes Ranthambore National Park, Sawai Madhopur Sanctuary, Keladevi Sanctuary, and part of the National Chambal Gharial Sanctuary. 
  • It is named after the historic Ranthambore Fort, a UNESCO World Heritage Site within the reserve. 
• Rivers: RTR is bound by the Banas River in the north and the Chambal River in the south. 
• Lakes: There are many lakes in the RTR, named Padam Talab, Raj Bagh Talab and Malik Talab. 
• Vegetation: Predominantly dry deciduous forest and tropical spike type. 
• Fauna: Home to the Royal Bengal tiger, leopards, caracals, sambar, chital, chinkara, wild boars, and several species of birds like sarus crane, serpent eagle, and painted spurfowl. 
  • As per the 2023 tiger census, RTR shelters 71 tigers and cubs, making it the third most densely populated tiger reserve after Corbett and Kaziranga. 
• Flora: Dominated by the Dhok tree (Anogeissus pendula), and other are Babul (Acacia nilotica), Gurjan (Lannea coromandelica), Gum (Sterculia urens), and Khair (Acacia catechu). 

Read more: Ranthambhore Tiger Reserve 

India Expands Definition of ATF

Source: TH 

The Ministry of Petroleum amended the Aviation Turbine Fuel (Regulation of Marketing) Order, 2001, expanding the definition of Aviation Turbine Fuel (ATF) to include blends with synthesised hydrocarbons derived from non-petroleum sources. 

• Boost to Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF): The reform enables the adoption of Sustainable Aviation Fuel, promoting cleaner aviation while reducing dependence on crude oil imports. 
• Objective: Similar to ethanol blending in petrol, the aim is to reduce import dependence and enhance energy security, especially amid global disruptions like the West Asia crisis. 
  • Synthesised hydrocarbons can be produced from biomass, natural gas, etc.; however, ethanol cannot be directly blended into ATF and must first be converted into suitable hydrocarbons. 
• Global Alignment: The policy aligns with international aviation decarbonisation efforts, including the International Civil Aviation Organisation’s Carbon Offsetting and Reduction Scheme for International Aviation (mandatory from 2027). 
• Blending Targets: India has set indicative Sustainable Aviation Fuel blending targets, 1% (2027), 2% (2028), and 5% (2030), in line with global trends in regions such as the European Union, United Kingdom, United States, Japan, and Singapore. 

Sustainable Aviation Fuel (SAF) 

• About: Sustainable Aviation Fuel is a biofuel produced from renewable feedstocks, chemically similar to conventional Aviation Turbine Fuel, and compatible with existing aircraft engines and infrastructure as a “drop-in” fuel. 
• Feedstock Sources: Includes oils and fats (used cooking oil, algae oils, animal fats, oilseeds), municipal solid waste, agricultural and forestry residues (e.g., bagasse, husk), and sugars and starches. 
• Alcohol-to-Jet (ATJ) Pathway: Converts renewable alcohols such as ethanol or butanol into hydrocarbon-based Sustainable Aviation Fuel, making them suitable for aviation use.

Read more: India's Aviation Industry 

E-Visa Expansion at Seaports

Source: TH 

The Ministry of Home Affairs has notified 14 additional seaports as Immigration Check Posts (ICPs) for foreign nationals holding e-visas. The e-visa facility has been extended to ports in Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Odisha. 

• Immigration Infrastructure: India currently has 114 ICPs across air, sea, land, rail, and river routes, including 37 seaports, but e-visa entry is restricted to 32 designated airports and 33 seaports. 
• E-Visa Framework: India’s e-visa facility is available to citizens of 207 countries (excluding China, Pakistan, Yemen, and Iran) across multiple categories such as tourist, business, medical, student, and transit, with validity ranging from one month to five years. 
• Purpose and Regulation: ICPs serve as critical entry points to ensure security screening, identity verification, and compliance with immigration laws, with e-visa access limited strictly to notified ports. 
• Ports Requiring Regular Visa: Major ports such as Jawaharlal Nehru Port (Nhava Sheva), Chennai, Kolkata, Cochin, Visakhapatnam, and Mormugao are not designated for e-visa entry, requiring travellers to obtain a conventional visa in advance. 
• Significance: The expansion enhances maritime connectivity and ease of entry, while strengthening immigration control and regulatory oversight across India’s coastal gateways.

Read More: e-B-4 Business Visa for Chinese Nationals 

New Evidence on Origin of Jamun

Source: PIB 

A recent study has revised the evolutionary history of Jamun (Syzygium), showing it originated much earlier than previously believed and highlighting India’s central role. 

• Earlier, its origin was thought to be in Australia or Southeast Asia (~51 million years ago), but this conflicted with Indian fossil records (55–20 million years ago), which indicate a continuous presence in India and had not been comprehensively reassessed. 
• Key Finding: The genus Syzygium originated around ~80 million years ago in East Gondwana, with India as a major centre of early diversification. 
• Fossil Evidence: New Miocene fossils  (~20 million years old) from the Kasauli Formation (Himachal Pradesh), including 11 fossil leaves, led to the identification of Syzygium paleosalicifolium and reconstruction of an evolutionary timeline. 
• Dispersal Pattern: The genus likely spread from India to Southeast Asia and Australia, revising earlier biogeographic theories. 

Jamun  

• About: Jamun (Syzygium cumini) belongs to the Syzygium genus of the Myrtaceae family and is commonly known as Indian blackberry, black plum, or Java plum. 
• Distribution: Widely found in India, Southeast Asia and tropical regions, commonly growing in moist deciduous and riverine ecosystems. 
• Nutritional Value: Rich in iron, antioxidants, vitamin C and anthocyanins, making it beneficial for immunity and metabolic health. 
• Significance: Jamun is important for its Ayurvedic medicinal uses (especially diabetes), economic value in food processing, and ecological role as a keystone species supporting pollinators and seed dispersal. 

Read more: Coelacanth