Modern Orbital Conflict

Source: TH 

Why in News? 

Modern orbital conflict has shifted from kinetic destruction to a "silent war" characterized by jamming, GPS spoofing, and ground station hacking, where digital intrusions can paralyze a state’s critical infrastructure without firing a single shot.  

What are the Key Highlights of Modern Orbital Conflict? 

• Weaponization of Daily Needs: Recent conflicts demonstrate that cyber-attacks (e.g., Russia’s Viasat KA-SAT cyberattack before its full-scale invasion of Ukraine, which severed vital communications across Europe) and GPS spoofing can weaponize a platform’s own safety logic, misleading aircraft and maritime vessels into hazardous situations. 
• Attribution Gap: Strategic anonymity provided by proxy networks creates a structural tension in international law; without high evidentiary certainty of the perpetrator, traditional deterrence fails. 
• "Functional Strike" Doctrine: By 2026, a growing legal consensus suggests that if a digital intrusion "bricks" a satellite, the consequences violate Article 2(4) of the UN Charter (Prohibition of Use of Force), regardless of whether physical "smoke and fire" occur. 
• Collapse of the Civilian-Military Divide: The "Starlink Precedent" illustrates how dual-use commercial constellations providing "space as a service" for military kill-chains dissolve the legal distinction between civilian objects and military targets. 

What can be the Consequences of the Modern Orbital Conflict? 

• Kessler Syndrome and Orbital Denial: The most catastrophic physical consequence is the triggering of the Kessler Syndrome (chain reaction of debris collisions creating even more debris). Kinetic impacts (using missiles to destroy satellites) create vast clouds of high-velocity debris. These fragments collide with other satellites, creating an exponential increase in debris.  
  • With over 2,700 pieces of space debris still in orbit from past tests, a new cascade of collisions could make Low Earth Orbit (LEO) unusable for generations. 
• Environmental and Scientific Loss: Increased debris re-entering the atmosphere can release metallic particles that potentially affect the Ozone Layer. High-density debris and "mega-constellation" light pollution hinder ground-based astronomical research, clouding our view of the universe.  
• Global Socio-Economic Paralysis: Modern economies are deeply reliant on space assets. A conflict targeting these could lead to:  
  • Collapse of Navigation (PNT): The loss of GPS/GNSS (like India's NavIC) would cripple global logistics, aviation, and maritime trade. 
  • Financial Meltdown: Global banking and stock markets rely on the precise atomic clocks of satellites for "time-stamping" transactions. A sync failure could freeze international finance. 
  • Digital Divide: The loss of satellite communication would isolate rural regions and cut off high-speed satellite internet services (e.g., Starlink, OneWeb), which are vital for disaster management and education. 
• Strategic Destabilization and Escalation: Attacking early-warning satellites (used to detect missile launches) could be misinterpreted as a precursor to a nuclear strike, leading to accidental nuclear escalation.  
  • Non-kinetic attacks (cyber-hacking or "dazzling" lasers) are difficult to prove, creating a "grey zone" of conflict that erodes international trust and the Outer Space Treaty (1967).  
• Orbital Dependency Risks: Emerging economies face a "Jurisdictional Mirage." If their digital backbones are hosted on third-party commercial satellites that are targeted or "seceded" from international law, these nations lose sovereignty over their own data and security.    

International Regulations on Orbital Management 

• Outer Space Treaty (1967): Article VI of the treaty makes states responsible for all national space activities, including private ones, but lacks enforcement mechanisms.  
• Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (1972): It imposes absolute liability for space object damage on Earth, requiring no proof of negligence, but enforcement is weak.  
• Voluntary UN Guidelines on Deorbiting: The UN recommends deorbiting satellites within 25 years, but compliance rate is only around 30%. 

What Steps are Needed to Prevent Orbital Conflict? 

• Strengthening the International Legal Framework: Finalizing the Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (PAROS) treaty is critical. This proposed legally binding instrument aims to prohibit the placement of any weapons in orbit, not just weapons of mass destruction (WMDs). 
  • Support the Prevention of the Placement of Weapons in Outer Space (PPWT) initiative, which encourages nations to commit to not being the first to weaponize orbit.    
• Establish Norms of Responsible Behavior: A global, permanent ban on Kinetic Anti-Satellite (ASAT) tests that create long-lasting debris is required.  
  • Establish clear protocols for Rendezvous and Proximity Operations (RPO). When one satellite approaches another (for repair or refueling), it must be done with transparency to avoid being perceived as a "stalker" or "killer" satellite.  
• Enhanced Space Situational Awareness (SSA): SSA is the "eyes and ears" of orbital security. Create an international "Traffic Control" system where countries share real-time tracking data of satellites and debris. India’s Project NETRA and the US Space Surveillance Network can be the key contributors here.    
• Develop Attribution Capabilities: Develop the technology to definitively prove who interfered with a satellite. If a satellite is "blinded" by a laser or hacked, clear attribution acts as a powerful deterrent.   
• Distributed Constellations: Shifting from a few "expensive, large" satellites to "many, small" satellites (like Starlink or India's planned military constellations). Destroying one or two satellites in a cluster of hundreds becomes strategically pointless.  

Conclusion 

The shift from kinetic destruction to "silent" cyber warfare in space necessitates a transition from reactive defense to a "secure-by-design" global architecture. Addressing the attribution gap and establishing legally binding norms against ASAT tests are critical to preventing a socio-economic collapse and ensuring the long-term sustainability of the Global Commons.  

Drishti Mains Question:

"Modern orbital conflict is characterized more by functional paralysis than physical destruction." Discuss the strategic and legal challenges posed by non-kinetic space warfare.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) 

1. How does the Kessler Syndrome lead to "Orbital Denial"? 
It is a chain reaction where debris collisions create an exponential cloud of fragments, eventually making Low Earth Orbit (LEO) too dangerous for any satellite operations or space travel. 

2. What is the objective of the proposed PAROS Treaty? 
The Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space (PAROS) aims to create a legally binding instrument to prohibit the placement of any weapons in orbit, moving beyond the Outer Space Treaty's limited ban on WMDs. 

3. Why is Project NETRA vital for India's space security? 
Project NETRA is India's dedicated Space Situational Awareness (SSA) system that tracks debris and hazards, providing the "eyes and ears" necessary to protect Indian space assets from collisions and interference. 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)  

Prelims 

Q. Consider the following space missions: (2025) 

1. Axiom-4    
2. SpaDeX    
3. Gaganyaan     

How many of the space missions given above encourage and support microgravity research? 

(a) Only one     

(b) Only two     

(c) All three     

(d) None     

Ans: (c)

Q. With reference to India’s satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements: (2018)

1. PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly to launch communication satellites.   
2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as viewed from a particular location on Earth.  
3. GSLV Mk III is a four-staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.  

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?   

(a) 1 only    

(b) 2 and 3   

(c) 1 and 2    

(d) 3 only   

Ans: (a)

Q. Consider the following statements: (2016)

1. The Mangalyaan launched by ISRO   
2. is also called the Mars Orbiter Mission   
3. made India the second country to have a spacecraft orbit the Mars after USA   
4. made India the only country to be successful in making its spacecraft orbit the Mars in its very first attempt   

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?   

(a) 1 only   

(b) 2 and 3 only   

(c) 1 and 3 only   

(d) 1, 2 and 3   

Ans: (c)

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Mains 

Q.1  What is India’s plan to have its own space station and how will it benefit our space programme? (2019) 

Q.2  Discuss India’s achievements in the field of Space Science and Technology. How the application of this technology helped India in its socio-economic development? (2016) 

Q.3 What is the main task of India’s third mood mission which could not be achieved in its earlier mission? List the countries that have achieved this task. Introduce the subsystems in the spacecraft launched and explain the role of the ‘Virtual Launch Control Centre’ at the Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre which contributed to the successful launch from Sriharikota. (2023) 

India-Nepal Border Frictions Regarding Kailash Yatra Route

Source: TH 

Why in News?  

Nepal has officially expressed "concerns" to both India and China regarding the upcoming Kailash Mansarovar Yatra being routed through the Lipulekh Pass.  

• Kathmandu has reiterated its claim that the Kalapani-Limpiyadhura-Lipulekh region is part of Nepal’s sovereign territory, a stance India has firmly rejected. 

What are the Differing Territorial Claims of Nepal and India? 

• Nepal’s Standpoint: Nepal claims that the territories of Limpiyadhura, Lipulekh, and Kalapani (located east of the Mahakali River) have been integral parts of Nepal since the Treaty of Sugauli in 1816. 
• India’s Rebuttal: India stated that Nepal's claims are "neither justified nor based on historical facts and evidence." 
  • India highlighted that the Lipulekh Pass is not a new development but has been a longstanding and traditional route for the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra since 1954. 
  • India argues the Kali River originates from springs further east, placing Kalapani within India's Pithoragarh district (Uttarakhand), where it has maintained a military presence since the 1960s. 
• Commitment to Dialogue: Despite the friction, India reiterated its willingness to engage in constructive interaction with Nepal to resolve agreed-upon boundary issues through bilateral diplomacy. 
  • In 2020, Nepal released a new political map incorporating Lipulekh, Kalapani, and Limpiyadhura, later reflected in a revised 100-rupee note.  
  • The same year, India’s construction of a road link through Lipulekh to Tibet drew strong objections from Nepal, which termed it a violation of its sovereignty.  
  • Both sides continue to rely on the Sugauli Treaty to support their claims, differing mainly over the origin point of the Mahakali River that defines the boundary.  
  • In April 2026, Nepal began strictly enforcing a rule requiring customs duty on goods worth more than 100 NPR carried across the border, aimed at curbing informal trade and protecting local traders. 
    • India termed it a pre-existing rule but sought assurances against harassment of civilians.  

What are the Key Facts About the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra? 

• About: Kailash Mansarovar Yatra is a pilgrimage organized by the Ministry of External Affairs (India) to Mount Kailash (6,638 m) and Lake Mansarovar (4,600 m) in the Tibet Autonomous Region (TAR)  of China.  
  • The Kora (Parikrama) around Mount Kailash is a high-altitude trek, peaking at Dolma La Pass (~18,600 ft), and is physically demanding. Pilgrims also perform ritual bathing in Lake Mansarovar (~15,000 ft), one of the world’s highest freshwater lakes. 
  • Mount Kailash, though lower in height than Mount Everest (8,849 meters), remains unclimbed as its ascent is prohibited due to its sacred significance. 
• Official Operational Routes:   
  • Lipulekh Pass (Uttarakhand): It is the shortest route to Mansarovar (50 km from the border), but rough terrain extends the trek to 200 km.   
    • It was the first Indian border post opened for trade with China in 1992, followed by Shipki La (1994) and Nathu La (2006).  
  • Nathu La Pass (Sikkim): This 1,500 km fully motorable route (it is one of the world's highest motorable roads) opened in 2015; easier for pilgrims, no trekking needed.   
    • Nathu La connects Sikkim with China's TAR and is part of the ancient Silk Road.  
• Mount Kailash: It is a diamond-shaped black rock peak in Tibet, sacred to Hindus, Buddhists, Jains, and Bons, and is the source of major Asian rivers like the Brahmaputra, Sutlej, Indus, and Karnali.  

Religion	Significance of Mount Kailash
Hinduism	Mount Kailash is the abode of Lord Shiva and Goddess Parvati; seen as the spiritual center of the universe. A dip in Lake Mansarovar is believed to cleanse sins.
Buddhism	Known as Kang Rinpoche (“Precious Jewel of Snow”); believed to be the abode of Demchok, symbolizing supreme bliss.
Jainism	Referred to as Mount Ashtapad; sacred as the site where Rishabhanatha attained moksha.
Bon	Called the “Nine-Story Swastika Mountain”, regarded as a mystical axis mundi (center of the world) in the indigenous Bon religion.

• Physical Challenges: The high-altitude pilgrimage poses serious risks like Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS), extreme terrain, making rigorous medical screening essential before undertaking the journey.

Way Forward 

• Revive Boundary Talks: Activate Foreign Secretary-level dialogue (mandated in 2014) to resolve Kalapani, Lipulekh, and Limpiyadhura issues; continue technical work via the Boundary Working Group. 
  •  Develop a joint framework for the Lipulekh route to balance pilgrimage access and Nepal’s interests. 
• Recalibrate Diplomacy: India should adapt to Nepal’s new leadership and follow the principles of the Gujral Doctrine by offering non-reciprocal concessions to build trust and goodwill.  
• Ease Trade Frictions: Use the Inter-Governmental Committee to address customs tensions while balancing anti-smuggling measures with border livelihoods. 
• Boost Economic Integration: Ensure timely completion of key projects (e.g., Arun-III) and operationalize India’s commitment to import 10,000 MW of hydropower from Nepal. 
• Religious Tourism: Both nations should aggressively promote joint tourism initiatives like the Ramayana Circuit (connecting Ayodhya in India to Janakpur in Nepal) and the Buddha Circuit (connecting Sarnath/Bodhgaya to Lumbini).  
• Strengthen People Ties: Strengthen people-to-people ties by expanding scholarships, skilling, and digital cooperation (such as UPI), while leveraging the open border that enables seamless movement for livelihood (roti) and marital (beti) connections between India and Nepal.  

Conclusion 

The India-Nepal relationship is uniquely characterized by an open border and deep kinship. To prevent administrative rules or localized territorial disagreements from snowballing into diplomatic standoffs, both nations must prioritize quiet diplomacy over megaphone nationalism, keeping the 'Neighborhood First' policy at the core of their engagement. 

Drishti Mains Question: 

“Boundary disputes between India and Nepal are rooted more in interpretation than geography.” Examine.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) 

1. What is the core issue in the India–Nepal boundary dispute? 
It revolves around differing interpretations of the Sugauli Treaty and the origin of the Mahakali River. 

2. Why is Lipulekh Pass significant? 
It is a strategic trade route and key access point for the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra, disputed by both India and Nepal. 

3. What was Nepal’s 2020 map controversy? 
Nepal issued a new political map including Kalapani, Lipulekh, and Limpiyadhura, escalating tensions with India. 

4. What is the purpose of the Kailash Mansarovar Yatra? 
It is a religious pilgrimage to Mount Kailash and Lake Mansarovar, organized by India’s MEA. 

5. What is the Gujral Doctrine? 
It advocates non-reciprocal concessions by India to smaller neighbours to build trust and regional stability. 

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ)  

Prelims 

Q. Consider the following statements: (2020)

1. The value of Indo-Sri Lanka trade has consistently increased in the last decade. 
2. “Textile and textile articles” constitute an important item of trade between India and Bangladesh. 
3. In the last five years, Nepal has been the largest trading partner of India in South Asia. 

Which of the statements given above is/are correct?

(a) 1 and 2 only

(b) 2 only

(c) 3 only

(d) 1, 2 and 3

Ans: (b)

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Mains 

Q. How far are India’s internal security challenges linked with border management, particularly in view of the long porous borders with most countries of South Asia and Myanmar? (2013)

Q. What is meant by Gujral Doctrine? Does it have any relevance today? Discuss. (2013)

Pre-1857 Revolts

Source: HT 

Why in News? 

While the 1857 Revolt is traditionally celebrated as the "First War of Independence," a series of formidable anti-colonial uprisings preceded it, challenging the British East India Company (EIC)'s growing hegemony.  

What are the Various Anti-colonial Uprisings that Preceded the 1857 Revolt? 

Civil Uprisings 

Name of Revolt	Causes	Key Details
Sanyasi-Fakir Rebellion (1763–1800)	Economic distress after the Famine of 1770 and restrictions on pilgrims.	Equal participation of Hindus and Muslims, famously featured in Bankim Chandra’s Anandamath. It was eventually suppressed by Warren Hastings.
Poligar Wars (1795–1805)	British attempts to collect direct taxes from military chieftains (Poligars) in the Carnatic region.	Led by legendary figures such as Veerapandiya Kattabomman and the Maruthu Brothers of Sivagangai. They employed guerrilla warfare and published the Tiruchirappalli Proclamation (1801) calling for unified resistance against the British.
Velu Thampi’s Revolt (1808–1809)	Financial burdens of the Subsidiary Alliance and British high-handedness in Travancore.	Led by Velu Thampi, the Dewan (Prime Minister) of Travancore. He issued the Kundara Proclamation (1809), successfully rallying the population to arms.
Paika Rebellion (1817)	Extortionist land-revenue policies and the loss of rent-free lands held by the Paikas (hereditary militia of Odisha)	Led by Bakshi Jagabandhu. The Paikas engaged in armed combat, setting fire to police stations and raiding East India Company treasuries before the rebellion was suppressed in 1818.

Tribal Uprisings 

Name of Revolt	Causes	Key Details
Chuar Uprising (1766–1816)	Aggressive land revenue demands and famine in the Midnapore district.	Led by local tribesmen and displaced zamindars like Durjan Singh; primarily used guerrilla tactics.
Kol Mutiny (1831–1832)	Large-scale transfer of tribal lands to non-tribal outsiders (Sikhs and Muslims).	Led by Buddho Bhagat in the Chotanagpur region, it required a large-scale military operation to suppress.
Santhal Rebellion (Hul) (1855–1856)	Oppression by moneylenders (mahajans) and the EIC under the Permanent Settlement.	Led by Sidhu and Kanhu, it resulted in the creation of the Santhal Pargana as a separate district.
Khondo Uprisings (1837–1856)	Attempts by the British to suppress the custom of human sacrifice (Meriah).	Led by Chakra Bisoi; the tribe fought to protect their traditional socio-religious practices.

Peasant and Socio-Religious Movements 

Name of Revolt	Causes	Key Details
Pagal Panthis (1825–1835)	Exploitation of the peasantry by zamindars in East Bengal.	Founded by Karam Shah, his son Tipu Shah captured areas and established a brief parallel administration.
Faraizi Revolt (1838–1857)	Land revenue changes and the protection of tenant rights against landlords.	Founded by Haji Shariatullah and later led by his son Dudu Mian, this movement united Muslim peasantry against EIC land policies.
Wahabi Movement (1830s–1860s)	A desire to return to pure Islam and resist Western/British political influence.	Founded by Syed Ahmed of Rai Bareilly; it became a major organized anti-British movement across North India.
Kuka Movement (1840s onwards)	Loss of Sikh sovereignty and religious reforms against British influence in Punjab.	Founded by Bhagat Jawahar Mal, followers wore hand-woven clothes and boycotted British education and laws.

Early Military Sepoy Mutinies  

Name of Revolt	Causes	Key Details
Vellore Mutiny (1806)	Strict new military dress codes (such as banning caste markings, trimming beards, and replacing turbans with a new round hat made of cow/pig hide).	The sepoys rose up, killed several British officers, and hoisted the flag of the Mysore ruler (Tipu Sultan's sons) before British forces crushed the mutiny, leaving hundreds of sepoys dead.
Barrackpore Mutiny (1824)	The 47th Native Infantry refused to travel across the sea to Myanmar during the First Anglo-Burmese War (1824–1826), as crossing the ocean (Kala Pani) was forbidden in their religious beliefs.	The 47th Native Infantry was disbanded after the British opened fire on the protesting sepoys.
Mutiny of the 34th NI (1844)	Dispute over the withdrawal of Bhatta (foreign service allowance) for serving in Sindh.	Several regiments refused to move to Sindh unless their financial grievances were addressed.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) 

1. Which pre-1857 rebellion is famously depicted in Bankim Chandra Chatterjee’s novel Anandamath? 
The Sanyasi-Fakir Rebellion (1763–1800). It highlighted Hindu-Muslim unity against economic distress caused by the British. 

2. What was the significance of the Tiruchirappalli Proclamation (1801)? 
Issued during the Poligar Wars, it was one of the earliest calls for unified resistance against the British East India Company in South India. 

3. Which rebellion led to the creation of a separate administrative district by the British? 
The Santhal Rebellion (Hul) of 1855–56, led by Sidhu and Kanhu, resulted in the creation of Santhal Pargana as a distinct district. 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQ) 

Q. After the Santhal Uprising subsided, what was/were the measure/measures taken by the colonial government? (2018)

1. The territories called ‘Santhal Parganas’ were created. 
2. It became illegal for a Santhal to transfer land to a non-Santhal. 

Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

A. 1 only 

B. 2 only 

C. Both 1 and 2 

D. Neither 1 nor 2 

Ans: C 

Q. Which amongst the following provided a common factor for tribal insurrection in India in the 19th century? (2011)

A. Introduction of a new system of land revenue and taxation of tribal products. 

B. Influence of foreign religious missionaries in tribal areas. 

C. Rise of a large number of money lenders, traders and revenue farmers as middlemen in tribal areas. 

D. The complete disruption of the old agrarian order of the tribal communities. 

Ans: D

Q. With reference to the history of India, “Ulgulan” or the Great Trumult is the description of which of the following events? (2020)

A. The Revolt of 1857 

B. The Mappila Rebellion of 1921 

C. The Indigo Revolt of 1859-60 

D. Birsa Munda’s Revolt of 1899-1900 

Ans: D

NGT Pushes South States for Stronger Air Pollution Control

Source: TH 

Why in News?  

The National Green Tribunal (NGT) Southern Zone has directed Southern States and Puducherry to strictly implement State Action Plans (SAPs) under the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP) or face "environmental compensation" (fines) for under-utilizing NCAP funds.  

What are the Core Issues Flagged by NGT? 

• Disproportionate Expenditure: States like Karnataka utilized funds heavily on road dust control (86%), while largely ignoring vehicular emissions (6.6%) and biomass burning (4.1%). 
• Breaching Limits: PM2.5 and PM10 levels in cities like Eloor, Kalaburagi, Hyderabad, and Visakhapatnam are currently 4 to 6 times above WHO guidelines. 
• Airshed Approach: The NGT mandated the establishment of institutional arrangements for "Airshed-level coordination" among southern states (managing air pollution based on geographical/meteorological boundaries rather than political state borders). 

What is the National Clean Air Programme (NCAP)? 

• NCAP: The National Clean Air Programme (NCAP), launched in 2019 by India's Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MoEFCC), is a national-level strategy to reduce air pollution.  
  • NCAP is a 5-year plan launched in 2019, but given that air pollution outcomes take longer, it may be extended to 20–25 years after review.  
• Goal: NCAP aims to reduce PM10 levels by 20–30% by 2024–25 from the 2017–18 baseline, later revised to achieve up to 40% reduction or meet national standards (60 µg/m³) by 2025–26.  However, the target has not been met. 
• Target Cities: NCAP does not apply uniformly to every city in India. It specifically targets 130 "Non-Attainment Cities".  
  • Non-attainment cities are urban areas in India that have consistently failed to meet the National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for pollutants over a five-year period. 
• Implementation Strategy: Implementation is monitored by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) at the national level, along with State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) at the state level. 
  • City Action Plans: Localized plans focused on dust control, reducing vehicular emissions, waste management, and industrial pollution. 
  • State Action Plans (SAPs): Under NCAP, SAPs cover the entire State/UT, including both NCAP and non-NCAP areas, with a clear funding mechanism. 
    • They are based on emission inventories and sector-wise reduction strategies, supported by state-level policy interventions to ensure effective implementation of city action plans. 
  • Institutional Framework: Comprises an Apex Committee at the MoEFCC, along with state-level and city-level committees. 
  • Funding: Funds are released through the 15th Finance Commission and other schemes like Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban), Smart City Mission, and FAME-II. 
• Monitoring: The PRANA portal provides public access to information regarding air quality management, monitoring data, and the financial status of projects. 

UPSC Civil Services Examination Previous Year Question (PYQ) 

Prelims

Q. In the cities of our country, which among the following atmospheric gases are normally considered in calculating the value of Air Quality Index? (2016)

1. Carbon dioxide 
2. Carbon monoxide 
3. Nitrogen dioxide 
4. Sulfur dioxide 
5. Methane 

Select the correct answer using the code given below:

(a) 1, 2 and 3 only 

(b) 2, 3 and 4 only 

(c) 1, 4 and 5 only 

(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

Ans: (b)

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Mains 

Q. Describe the key points of the revised Global Air Quality Guidelines (AQGs) recently released by the World Health Organisation (WHO). How are these different from its last update in 2005? What changes in India’s National Clean Air Programme are required to achieve revised standards? (2021)

Fibre-Optic Drones

Source:TH 

Fibre-optic-guided drones have emerged as a highly disruptive technological force in the Russia-Ukraine and West Asia conflicts, bypassing conventional defense systems and redefining modern front-line combat. 

• Mechanism & Technology: These drones operate using a thin fibre-optic spool (extending up to 50 km) that transmits telemetry and high-bandwidth video via light signals, replacing traditional wireless radio frequency (RF) communications. 
• Strategic Advantage: Unlike RF drones, fibre-optic drones are immune to electronic warfare (EW) jamming and anti-drone frequencies, allowing for uninterrupted, real-time control and high-resolution imagery up to the moment of a strike. 
  • They are made of lightweight fibreglass, giving them minimal thermal and radar signatures. 
• Global Deployment: Russia was the first to deploy fibre-optic drones, also known as first-person view (FPV) attack drones, prompting Ukraine to adopt them as well. These drones are also being actively used by Hezbollah against Israel’s defence systems.  
• Operational Limitations: Challenges include the weight of the fibre canister and payload affecting battery life, and the vulnerability of the physical cable to snapping from strong winds or enemy combatants.  
  • Manufacturers are currently mitigating this by using Kevlar-infused protective coatings. 
• Countermeasures: Current defenses are largely physical and rudimentary, such as metal cages and protective nets (also known as 'cope cages'). Future defense research is heavily focused on early detection using infrared or acoustic sensors and disabling the optical lines via directed-energy weapons (lasers). 
• Environmental Impact: The extensive use of lightweight, flexible polymer optical fibres is contributing to severe 'conflict pollution'.  
  • The degradation of these cables through explosions and fires releases microplastics and toxic substances into the soil, air, and water, posing a long-term ecological threat. 

Read more: Weapons in the US–Israel–Iran Conflict 

Mission Drishti: World’s 1st OptoSAR Satellite

Source: IE 

The Indian space start-up GalaxEye, successfully launched its debut satellite, Mission Drishti, aboard a SpaceX Falcon 9 rocket, marking a global milestone in simultaneous multi-sensor earth observation. Weighing 190 kg, Mission Drishti is India's largest privately developed Earth observation Satellite. 

• Opto-SAR Technology: Drishti is the world’s first satellite designed to capture both optical (multi-spectral) and Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) images of the same location at the same time. 
• Solving the Tropical Cloud Cover Problem: Traditional optical satellites cannot see through clouds or at night, a major issue for tropical countries like India; Drishti’s SAR sensors penetrate clouds while the optical sensors provide intuitive clarity, offering all-weather, day-and-night imaging. 
  • When clouds obstruct the view, the satellite employs Artificial Intelligence (AI) to regenerate optical-like images from the SAR data, making the information accessible to non-experts. 
• Simultaneous Synchronization: The satellite uses a proprietary technology stack that synchronizes the optical and SAR sensors, which typically capture images from different angles. This ensures data fusion happens instantly, without the need for manual alignment of separate datasets, a key innovation of Drishti. 
• Strategic Utility: It supports border surveillance, defence, disaster response, agriculture, infrastructure planning, and insurance assessment, as radar imaging bypasses cloud cover during floods, cyclones, or landslides. 
• Private Space Ecosystem: This launch reinforces India's growing private space sector, joining pioneers like Agnikul Cosmos (3D-printed engines) and Skyroot (privately built rockets).

Read More: Rise of India's Private Space Industry 

Hantavirus Outbreak

Source: TH 

A suspected outbreak of the rare Hantavirus has trapped approximately 150 people aboard the Dutch cruise ship MV Hondius off the coast of Cape Verde (an island nation in West Africa). 

• Nature of the Disease: Hantaviruses are a family of viruses that cause severe illnesses, primarily Hantavirus Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS) (characterised by acute respiratory distress) and Hemorrhagic Fever with Renal Syndrome (HFRS) (characterised by internal bleeding and kidney failure). 
• Vector and Transmission: It is a zoonotic illness carried by specific rodents, including deer mice, white-footed mice, and cotton rats.  
  • Humans predominantly contract the virus through aerosolisation- inhaling airborne viral particles from disturbed infected rodent waste (urine, droppings, or saliva) during activities like sweeping or cleaning. 
  • The virus is diagnosed with a PCR test, similar to those used to diagnose viruses such as Covid. 
• Symptoms and Progression: The infection initially presents with flu-like symptoms (fever, muscle aches, fatigue) within an incubation period of 1 to 8 weeks.  
  • This rapidly escalates into a severe respiratory phase marked by shortness of breath and chest tightness, which can be fatal without prompt intervention. 
  • Globally, hantavirus causes an estimated 150,000–200,000 cases each year. It is less contagious than airborne diseases like Covid-19 and Influenza, as it usually does not spread between people.  
    • However, the Andes virus, a specific strain of hantavirus endemic to Argentina and Chile, has shown rare cases of human-to-human transmission.  
• At-Risk Populations: Individuals living or working in rodent-prone environments such as farmers, construction workers, and campers are at high risk.  
  • Additionally, children under five, pregnant women, and immunocompromised individuals are highly vulnerable and must avoid handling rodents. 
• Treatment Protocol: There is currently no specific antiviral treatment, cure, or vaccine for Hantavirus.  
  • Medical care is strictly supportive, focusing on symptomatic management, particularly oxygen therapy and mechanical ventilation to assist lung function during critical phases. 
• Prevention: Because medical cures are absent, prevention relies entirely on proactive rodent control and strict adherence to sanitation protocols to prevent infestations in human habitats. 

Read more:  Hantavirus 

Colombia’s Hippo Crisis and Vantara’s Relocation Proposal

Source: TH 

The Vantara in Jamnagar, Gujarat, has offered to relocate 80 hippos from Colombia, following the Colombian government’s decision to cull invasive hippo populations due to ecological concerns. 

• The hippo population has grown from four individuals in 1981 to around 170 today after spreading into the Magdalena River basin, with projections of about 1000 by 2035 if unchecked. 
• Colombia declared Hippopotamus amphibius an invasive alien species in 2022 and explored sterilisation using the GonaCon vaccine, but it proved costly and ineffective at scale. 
• However, relocation faces multiple challenges, including sedation risks, capture stress (capture myopathy), logistical complexity, high transport costs, and the need to maintain social groups (pods), ensure water availability, and adapt to different climatic conditions.  

Hippopotamus amphibius 

• Hippopotamus amphibius is a large, semi-aquatic herbivore native to sub-Saharan Africa (males up to 3000 kg), known for its territorial and aggressive behaviour and its habit of spending most of its time in water for thermoregulation. 
• It is the 2nd largest land animal (after the elephant), and is highly territorial and aggressive, especially in aquatic environments.  
• It is herbivorous, feeding mainly on grasses, and spends most of the day submerged in water to regulate body temperature. 
• It acts as an ecosystem engineer, transferring nutrients from land to water through waste, often causing eutrophication and ecological imbalance in non-native habitats. 
• Classified as Vulnerable (IUCN Red List) and listed under CITES Appendix II due to habitat loss and illegal hunting, highlighting conservation concerns.  

Read More: Invasive Alien Species 

SC to Review Apnoea Test for Brain Death

Source: TH 

Recently, the Supreme Court agreed to examine a plea questioning the reliability of the apnoea test in determining brain death, directing an expert review.  

• Brain death, or brain stem death, is an irreversible condition where all brain activity, including essential functions like breathing, cease. Although the patient remains on life support, such as a ventilator, and continues to breathe, they are effectively dead and cannot be revived. 
• Despite being on life support, patients in brain death can donate organs such as the heart and lungs, which cannot be donated by living individuals, making them suitable candidates for organ transplantation. 
• According to the current guidelines by the National Organ and Tissue Transplant Organisation (NOTTO), a four-member board, including the hospital in-charge, a neurologist or neurosurgeon, and the treating physician, must confirm that a patient’s brain function has irreversibly ceased at least twice with a 12-hour interval.  

Apnoea Test 

• About: The apnoea test is used to assess brainstem function by checking spontaneous breathing when oxygen supply is maintained but ventilation is stopped. 
• Usage: It is commonly used in intensive care units (ICUs) as part of brain death certification protocols. 
• Concerns: Experts argue that the apnoea test should be used only as a confirmatory test, not as the sole criterion, as per international standards (e.g., WHO guidelines). The test may reduce cerebral blood flow, potentially contributing to or inducing brain death itself. 
• Alternative Test: Experts recommend that brain death determination should rely on supplementary tests such as electroencephalography (EEG), four-vessel cerebral angiography, radionuclide angiography, or computed tomography angiography for greater accuracy.  
• Significance: The accurate determination of brain death is crucial for ethical organ transplantation and end-of-life medical decisions.

Read more: Human Brain Implant by Neuralink