Sikkim Becomes India’s First Paperless Judiciary State

Why in News?  

Sikkim has been declared the first state in India to adopt a fully paperless judiciary by Justice Surya Kant, marking a major milestone in digital justice delivery.  

Key Points  

• Historic Declaration: The announcement was made by the Chief Justice of India during the National Conclave on Technology and Judicial Education held in Gangtok.  
  • Organised by: The conclave was organised by the High Court of Sikkim and the Sikkim Judicial Academy. 
• Complete Digital Ecosystem: The paperless judiciary involves end-to-end digital functioning including e-filing, digital case records, virtual hearings, and automated workflows.  
  • Digital processes are expected to reduce case pendency, ensure faster hearings, and improve overall efficiency in justice delivery.  
• Use of Advanced Technology: The judiciary is increasingly adopting tools like Artificial Intelligence (e.g., SUPACE and SUVAS) for research, translation, and case management.  

Read More:  Chief Justice of India, High Court, Artificial Intelligence 

Strengthening India’s Supply Chains through Inland Waterways

For Prelims: Inland waterways,  Inland Waterways Authority of India,  Jal Marg Vikas Project, Coastal Cargo Promotion Scheme, Viability gap funding 

For Mains: Role of Inland Waterways in India’s Economy and Logistics, Environmental Sustainability and Green Transport, Regional Development and Hinterland Integration

Source: BL 

Why in News?

The Chief Economic Advisor (CEA) highlighted the importance of inland waterways in strengthening India’s supply chains and logistics efficiency. 

• He stressed that amid disruptions in global shipping routes due to the West Asian conflict 2026, developing internal transport networks is essential for logistics resilience and economic stability. 

Summary 

• Inland waterways are emerging as a cost-effective, eco-friendly, and resilient transport mode, crucial for reducing logistics costs and strengthening supply chains. 
• With policy push, infrastructure development, and targets (5% modal share by 2030), India aims to make waterways a key pillar of sustainable economic growth.

What is the Importance of Inland Waterways in India's Supply Chains? 

• Cost-Effectiveness: Inland Water Transport (IWT) is the most economical mode of freight movement.  
  • Moving goods via waterways costs approximately Rs 0.25– Rs 0.30 per ton-km, drastically lower than rail (Rs 1.0) and road (Rs 1.5).  
  • This directly reduces the overall logistics cost for domestic industries, making Indian goods more competitive globally. 
• Massive Bulk Carrying Capacity: Waterways offer incredible scale for heavy cargo. A single standard 2,000-tonne inland vessel can carry the equivalent of 125 standard trucks.  
  • This makes it the ideal mode for transporting bulk commodities essential to the economy, such as coal, cement, fertilizers, and food grains. 
• Decongesting Terrestrial Networks: India's road and rail networks are heavily burdened, leading to delayed shipments and higher maintenance costs.  
  • By absorbing a large share of heavy cargo, waterways alleviate severe congestion on national highways and freight corridors, reducing wear-and-tear on infrastructure and minimizing transit delays. 
• Insulation from Global Volatility: As recent geopolitical crises (like the West Asian conflict) have shown, international shipping lanes are vulnerable to massive disruptions and surging freight/insurance costs.  
  • Inland waterways provide a secure, domestic channel that is completely insulated from these external shocks, ensuring that internal trade continues without interruption. 
• Environmental Sustainability: Aligning with India’s Panchamrit climate goals, IWT is highly eco-friendly. It consumes 3 to 6 times less energy than road transport and produces a fraction of the greenhouse gas emissions.  
  • Transitioning supply chains to waterways helps industries reduce their carbon footprint. 
• Integrating the Hinterland: Waterways unlock the logistical potential of landlocked and underdeveloped regions, particularly states like Bihar, Jharkhand, and the Northeast.  
  • By linking these hinterlands directly to major maritime ports via rivers like the Ganga (National Waterway-1) and Brahmaputra (National Waterway-2), local MSMEs and farmers are seamlessly integrated into national and global supply chains. 
• Dependability and Room for Expansion: Waterways offer predictable travel times without traffic bottlenecks and have huge expansion potential, as most of India’s 20,000+ km navigable network remains underutilised, requiring minimal land acquisition.  

What are the Inland Waterways? 

• Definition: Inland Waterways are navigable water channels within a country such as rivers, canals, lakes, lagoons, and specific river estuaries that are distinct from the sea. 
  • The National Transport Policy Committee (1980) recommended that a waterway be declared national if it has a minimum channel width of 45 m, depth of 1.5 m, and a continuous stretch of at least 50 km, with exceptions for urban and intra-port areas.  
• Commercial Capacity: A waterway is considered navigable when it can support vessels carrying at least 50 tonnes for commercial trade under normal conditions. 
• Classification: They are generally divided into three main categories: 
  • Open River Waterways: Natural, largely free-flowing rivers with minimal modifications. 
  • Canalised Waterways: Rivers modified using structures like dams and locks to create calmer, reliable sections for transport. 
  • Canals: Fully man-made, engineered channels designed to bypass natural barriers or connect different water bodies. 
• Broader Utility: According to the World Bank, beyond transport, these waterways promote tourism, aid water management (flood control and irrigation), and protect local ecosystems. 

                                           

Current Status of Inland Waterways in India 

• Extensive Network: The National Waterways Act, 2016 declares 111 waterways (20,187 km) across 23 States and 4 UTs, of which 32 are operational (5,155 km) as of 2026, with plans to expand to 52 waterways.  
  • Operational waterways have fairways, terminals, and navigational aids, enabling safe vessel movement, cargo transport, and boosting inland water transport and private investment.  
• Cargo Movement : Driven by localized corridors like National Waterway-1 (Ganga-Bhagirathi-Hooghly) and National Waterway-2 (Brahmaputra), inland cargo movement has grown significantly, reaching 145.84 MMT (2024–25) and ~198 MMT (2025–26). 
  • Turnaround time fell from 41.76 hours (2013–14) to 28.5 hours (2024–25), showing improved efficiency and passenger traffic also surged from 1.61 crore in 2023-24 to 7.6 crore in 2024-25, highlighting rapid expansion and increasing importance in India’s logistics system. 
• Modal Share Target: Despite the growth, waterways account for less than 2% of the domestic freight modal share, lagging significantly behind road (65%) and rail (27%).  
  • India aims to raise the IWT modal share to 5% by 2030, with cargo targets of 200 MMT by 2030 and 500 MMT by 2047.

What are the Challenges with Inland Waterways in India?

• Inadequate Navigational Depth (Draft): Indian rivers are highly seasonal and rain-dependent.  
  • Siltation and low water levels during summers restrict the movement of large, fully loaded vessels, necessitating continuous and expensive capital dredging. 
• Infrastructure Gaps: The sector suffers from a lack of adequate modern terminals, Roll-on/Roll-off (Ro-Ro) facilities, mechanized cargo handling equipment, and robust last-mile connectivity to highways or railway freight corridors. 
• Low Vertical Clearances: Multiple low-lying bridges over rivers and canals obstruct the safe passage of bigger inland water vessels with higher air drafts. 
• Competing Water Uses: Rivers in India are multipurpose. The demand for drinking water and agricultural irrigation often supersedes navigational requirements, creating Centre-State coordination hurdles in river management. 
• Regulatory and Procedural Bottlenecks: Despite the Inland Vessels Act, 2021, compliance burdens, insurance mechanisms, and taxation issues make domestic vessels less competitive, deterring private sector (PPP) investments. 

India’s Initiatives Related to Inland Waterways 

• Inland Waterways Authority of India Act, 1985: Established the Inland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI) as the nodal body to develop, regulate, and maintain inland waterways infrastructure such as fairways, terminals, and navigation systems. 
• National Waterways Act, 2016: Provides a legal framework for National Waterways, enabling their planned development and expansion for shipping and navigation. 
• Jalvahak Cargo Promotion Scheme (2024): Encourages shift of cargo from road/rail to waterways by offering financial incentives (up to 35% cost reimbursement), improving logistics efficiency. 
• Inland Vessels Act, 2021: Introduces uniform safety and operational standards across states, ensuring safe navigation, reduced pollution, and efficient vessel management. 
• Coastal Shipping Act, 2025: Promotes integration of inland waterways with coastal shipping, improving multimodal connectivity and cost efficiency in transport. 
• Harit Nauka Guidelines (2024): Focus on green transition of vessels, aiming for reduced carbon emissions and sustainable inland transport aligned with long-term maritime goals. 
• Jal Marg Vikas Project (JMVP): The Jal Marg Vikas Project, along with Jal Marg Vikas Project-II (Arth Ganga), is being implemented to improve navigability on National Waterway-1 and to support the socio-economic development of communities along the Ganga River banks. 
• River Cruise Tourism Roadmap 2047: Promotes river-based tourism, leveraging waterways for economic development, employment, and cultural connectivity. 
• Union Budget 2026–27: Proposes to operationalise 20 new National Waterways and introduces the Coastal Cargo Promotion Scheme to shift cargo from road and rail to waterways, aiming to raise the modal share to 12% by 2047. 

Key Digital Initiatives in Inland Waterways 

• CAR-D (Cargo Data) Portal: A web-based platform developed by IWAI to collect, analyse, and share real-time data on cargo and cruise movement across National Waterways. 
• LADIS (Least Available Depth Information System): Provides real-time information on minimum water depth, ensuring safe and efficient navigation of vessels. 
• RIS (River Information Services): An advanced digital system enabling real-time vessel tracking, traffic management, weather updates, and communication, improving safety, efficiency, and coordination. 
• Jal Samriddhi Portal: Facilitates online approvals for construction of jetties and terminals, promoting transparency and ease of doing business. 
• JALYAN & NAVIC Portal: Provide an integrated digital interface for vessel operations, training, infrastructure management, and stakeholder services. 

How can Inland Waterways be Strengthened to Enhance India’s Supply Chains? 

• Capital and Maintenance Dredging: Implementing continuous, scientific dredging to guarantee a reliable minimum draft (depth) year-round, ensuring that large, fully loaded vessels can navigate even during dry summer months.  
• Integration with PM Gati Shakti: Syncing inland waterways with the National Master Plan to ensure physical integration with Dedicated Freight Corridors (DFCs), national highways, and coastal shipping routes.  
• Green Transition: Subsidizing the shift toward eco-friendly vessels under initiatives like the Green Tug Transition Programme, utilizing hybrid, electric, or alternative fuels (like methanol or hydrogen) to decarbonize logistics.  
• Promoting Public-Private Partnerships (PPP): The government needs to adopt lucrative viability gap funding (VGF) models to attract private capital for building terminals, warehouses, and modern inland vessels. 
• Eco-Friendly River Management: Implementing scientific, eco-friendly dredging techniques and utilizing river information systems (RIS) for real-time tracking, depth monitoring, and navigational safety. 
• Boosting Domestic Shipbuilding: Providing tax incentives and subsidies under the Make in India initiative to boost the domestic manufacturing of shallow-draft, high-capacity barges and green vessels.

Conclusion

Revitalizing inland waterways is a strategic imperative to decongest saturated terrestrial routes, slash logistics costs, and insulate India’s supply chains from global volatility. By bridging critical infrastructure deficits and driving multi-modal integration, this underutilized asset can be transformed into a formidable, eco-friendly economic artery.  

Drishti Mains Question:

“Inland waterways can transform India’s logistics landscape.” Examine in the context of cost, sustainability, and supply chain resilience.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) 

1. What is Inland Water Transport (IWT)?
It refers to transport throughrivers, canals, lakes, and backwaters for movement of goods and passengers within a country. 

2. Which is the nodal authority for inland waterways in India?
TheInland Waterways Authority of India (IWAI), established in 1986, regulates and develops waterways. 

3. What is the significance of the National Waterways Act, 2016?
It declares111 waterways as National Waterways, providing a legal framework for their development. 

4. Why are inland waterways considered sustainable?
They use3–6 times less energy than road transport and produce lower emissions, making them eco-friendly. 

5. What is India’s target for inland waterways?
To increase modal share to5% by 2030 and handle 500 MMT cargo by 2047. 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)  

Q. Enumerate the problems and prospects of inland water transport in India. (2016)

Major Ports Corporatisation in India

For Prelims: Major Port Authorities Act, 2021, Sagarmala Programme, Maritime India Vision 2030, Vadhavan Port, Digital Twin, National Logistics Portal (Marine), Logistics Performance Index (LPI), Galathea Bay, Harit Sagar, Coastal Cargo Promotion Scheme, Green Ammonia, Green Hydrogen.  

For Mains: Need of Corporatisation of India’s major ports, Key Facts regarding Major Ports, Concerns are Associated with Ports in India  and way forward. 

Source: BL 

Why in News? 

The transition from the Major Port Trusts Act, 1963, to the Major Port Authorities Act, 2021, represents a landmark governance reform aimed at corporatisation to drive efficiency, autonomy, and global competitiveness across India’s major ports.  

• While Kamarajar Port (Ennore) was the first corporatized major port, the government has moved to modernize the remaining 11 major ports.  

Summary 

• India is transitioning its 12 Major Ports from rigid statutory trusts to autonomous authorities to improve global competitiveness and logistics efficiency.  
• This reform facilitates the Landlord Model, allowing for professional management and private investment in infrastructure.  
• Ultimately, these steps are vital for reducing logistics costs and fulfilling the Maritime India Vision 2030.

What is the Need for Corporatisation of India's Major Ports? 

About 

• Corporatisation is the process of transforming a government-owned entity or statutory body into a legal corporate entity that operates under the principles of a private company while remaining under government ownership. In the context of India’s ports, it involves moving away from a "Trust" model to an "Authority" or "Company" model. 

Need of Corporatisation 

• Critical Economic Role: Major ports handle approximately 55-60% of India’s total cargo traffic and are the backbone of the Sagarmala Programme and Maritime India Vision 2030. Also, approximately 95% of India’s trade by volume and 70% by value moves through sea routes, highlighting that efficient port governance is a prerequisite for national logistics performance.  
• Operational Autonomy: Corporatization allows for a professional Board of Directors with independent members, enabling quicker, commercially-driven decisions without constant government intervention (no bureaucratic delays in land leasing, or equipment procurement). 
• Transition to the "Landlord Model": Modern global ports function as Landlord Ports. Here, the port authority owns the land and provides basic infrastructure, while private players handle the actual operations (berthing, loading, unloading). Corporatization provides the legal framework to manage these landlord-tenant relationships more effectively.  
• Financial Independence: As corporate entities, ports can access capital markets, issue bonds, and raise commercial loans from banks more easily. This is vital for massive projects like the Sagarmala Programme or the development of the new Vadhavan Port in Maharashtra.  
• Competitive Parity with Private (Non-Major) Ports: A corporate structure allows ports to set market-linked tariffs and offer competitive rates, preventing them from losing market share to aggressive private competitors.  
  • Private ports (like Mundra or Krishnapatnam) have grown rapidly because they can set their own tariffs and respond to market changes instantly. Major ports were hampered by the Tariff Authority for Major Ports (TAMP), which fixed rates rigidly. Jawaharlal Nehru Port (JNPT) and Chennai Port can adopt similar professional management practices to level the playing field.       
• Technological Advancement: A corporate structure is better suited to invest in and implement Digital Twin technology, Blockchain for logistics, and the National Logistics Portal (Marine), which are critical for improving India’s ranking in the Logistics Performance Index (LPI).   

What are Major Ports? 

• About: In India, Major Ports are those governed by the Central Government under the Major Port Authorities Act, 2021 (which replaced the 1963 Act). Currently, there are 12 government-controlled Major Ports and one corporate port (Ennore) that is also classified as a major port.  
• List of Major Ports in India: 

West Coast Ports (Arabian Sea) 

Port Name	State	Key Features
Kandla (Deendayal Port)	Gujarat	A tidal port and a major hub for crude oil and chemicals. It handles the highest volume of cargo in India.
Mumbai Port	Maharashtra	The largest natural port in India; handles a significant portion of bulk and general cargo.
JNPT (Nhava Sheva)	Maharashtra	India’s largest container port. It was built to relieve pressure on Mumbai Port.
Mormugao Port	Goa	A leading iron ore exporting port situated at the entrance of the Zuari estuary.
New Mangalore Port	Karnataka	Known as the "Gateway of Karnataka"; primarily exports iron ore and imports petroleum.
Kochi (Cochin) Port	Kerala	Located on the Willingdon Island; it houses India’s first International Container Transshipment Terminal (ICTT) at Vallarpadam.

East Coast Ports (Bay of Bengal) 

Port Name	State	Key Features
Tuticorin (V.O.C. Port)	Tamil Nadu	An artificial deep-sea port; handles significant trade with Sri Lanka.
Chennai Port	Tamil Nadu	The 2nd largest container port in India and an artificial harbour.
Ennore (Kamarajar Port)	Tamil Nadu	India’s first corporatized major port, primarily designed to handle coal for thermal power plants.
Visakhapatnam Port	Andhra Pradesh	The deepest landlocked and protected port in India; a major hub for iron ore and oil.
Paradip Port	Odisha	A deep-water, all-weather port located at the confluence of the Mahanadi River and the Bay of Bengal.
Kolkata Port (Syama Prasad Mookerjee Port)	West Bengal	The only major riverine port in India; includes the Haldia Dock Complex for deeper draft vessels.

What Concerns are Associated with Ports in India?

• Depth Limitations: Due to a shallow depth of 12 to 14 meters, Indian major ports cannot accommodate Ultra Large Container Vessels requiring 16 to 18 meters, forcing a reliance on transshipment hubs like Colombo or Singapore.  
  • Consequently, roughly 75% of India’s container cargo is transshipped at foreign ports, burdening importers and exporters with additional costs of approximately USD 80–USD 100 per container.  
• Last Mile Problem: Inadequate last-mile connectivity in roads and railways often leads to cargo piling up at docks, as port efficiency is inherently limited by its supporting infrastructure. These port inefficiencies contribute significantly to India’s logistics costs (India ranked 38th in Logistics Performance Index 2023), which remain high at 13-14% of GDP compared to the 8-10% seen in developed economies  
• High Turnaround Time (TRT): Although it has improved significantly (now roughly 2 days), India’s average TRT is still higher than global benchmarks like Singapore, where ships are processed in less than 24 hours.  
• Regulatory and Governance Issues: While the Major Port Authorities Act, 2021 aims to modernize governance, the transition to the "Landlord Model" has faced resistance from labor unions fearing job losses.   
• Environmental & Social Concerns: Massive dredging required to deepen ports can lead to coastal erosion and damage to marine ecosystems. Managing "ballast water" and preventing oil leaks remains a constant environmental challenge for port authorities.  

Government Initiatives for Port Development and Modernisation 

• Sagarmala Programme 
• Major Port Authorities Act, 2021 
• Maritime India Vision 2030 (MIV 2030) 
• National Logistics Portal (Marine) - NLP Marine 
• Development of Transshipment Hubs: Galathea Bay (Great Nicobar) and Vizhinjam (Kerala) 
• Harit Sagar (Green Port Guidelines) 

What Strategies are Required to Achieve Globally Competitive Port Development and Modernisation? 

• Infrastructure Augmentation: Increasing harbor depth to 18+ meters to accommodate Ultra Large Container Vessels (ULCVs) and reduce reliance on foreign transshipment hubs. Modernise quay cranes and yard equipment to ensure faster vessel turnaround times. E.g., Development of International Container Transshipment Port (ICTP) at Galathea Bay (Great Nicobar). 
• Digitalization and Smart Ports: Integrate the National Logistics Portal (Marine) with customs, shipping lines, and rail/road carriers for seamless data flow. Using Blockchain and IoT technologies for real-time tracking of containers, reducing "dwell time" (the time a container spends at the port).   
• Multimodal Hinterland Connectivity: Ensure high-speed rail connectivity (Dedicated Freight Corridors) directly into the port terminals to bypass local traffic.  Divert domestic cargo from congested roads to "Sea-to-River" routes, significantly lowering the carbon footprint and logistics costs.  
  • Leverage the Coastal Cargo Promotion Scheme to double the share of coastal shipping and inland waterways from 6% to 12% by 2047, reducing road/rail congestion.  
• Decarbonization and Green Ports: Develop infrastructure for Green Ammonia, Green Hydrogen, and LNG bunkering to attract the next generation of eco-friendly ships.  Allow ships to plug into the port’s electrical grid (Shore-to-Ship Power) so they can turn off their diesel engines while docked. 
• Port-Led Industrialization: Following the "Shengzen Model," ports should be hubs of manufacturing, not just transit points. Develop Coastal Economic Zones (CEZs)  (manufacturing clusters of textiles, electronics, chemicals, etc.) within 50-100 km of the port to minimize inland transport costs. 

Conclusion 

Corporatisation under the Major Port Authorities Act, 2021 is a strategic shift from bureaucratic trust-based governance to professional, autonomous port management. While challenges like shallow drafts, high logistics costs, and labour concerns persist, integrating digitalisation, green initiatives, and multimodal connectivity can transform India’s major ports into global-class logistics hubs. 

Drishti Mains Question:

"The transition from the 'Trust' model to the 'Authority' model is essential for the global competitiveness of Indian ports." Discuss.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) 

1. Which is India’s first corporatised major port? 
Kamarajar Port (Ennore) is India’s first corporatised major port. It demonstrated improved operational efficiency and investment mobilisation, serving as a model for the Major Port Authorities Act, 2021. 

2. Why is 'Draft Depth' a critical concern for Indian major ports? 
Most Indian ports have a shallow draft of 12–14 meters, making them incapable of handling Ultra Large Container Vessels (ULCVs) that require 16–18 meters, leading to a high reliance on foreign transshipment hubs. 

3. What is the significance of the Harit Sagar Guidelines? 
These are Green Port Guidelines aimed at achieving zero-carbon emissions through shore-to-ship power, green hydrogen bunkering, and "waste to wealth" initiatives. 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)  

Prelims 

Q. What is the importance of developing Chabahar Port by India? (2017)

(a) India’s trade with African countries will enormously increase. 

(b) India’s relations with oil-producing Arab countries will be strengthened. 

(c) India will not depend on Pakistan for access to Afghanistan and Central Asia. 

(d) Pakistan will facilitate and protect the installation of a gas pipeline between Iraq and India. 

Ans: (c)

Santa Marta Climate Conference

Source: IE 

Why in News?  

Representatives from over 50 countries, accounting for nearly 50% of global GDP, gathered in Santa Marta, Colombia, for the First International Conference on Transitioning Away from Fossil Fuels. 

• The conference was born out of growing frustration with the slow, consensus-bound negotiations of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) Conferences of the Parties (CoPs), which have frequently stalled on the issue of fossil fuel phase-out.

What is the Santa Marta Climate Conference? 

• Background: The First International Conference on Transitioning Away from Fossil Fuels was co-hosted by Colombia and the Netherlands.  
  • It was conceptualized as a "safe harbour" for a "coalition of the willing" countries ready to take concrete steps to phase out fossil fuels, bypassing the political deadlocks of traditional UN climate summits. 
• Objective: To develop practical, national, and international roadmaps to end the use of fossil fuels and shift towards renewable energy systems, aligning trade and finance policies with green transitions. 
• Key Highlights of the Conference: There was growing momentum for a Fossil Fuel Non-Proliferation Treaty, especially from Small Island Developing States (SIDS), to address supply-side governance gaps.  
  • Participants stressed aligning trade, finance, and carbon pricing with green transition goals, including phasing out fossil fuel subsidies, while calling for financial and technical support for developing countries to ensure an equitable shift to zero-carbon pathways. 
  • France has launched Europe's first fuel-by-fuel fossil exit roadmap, confirming coal will end by 2030, oil by 2045 and gas by 2050.  
• Limitations:  
  • Absence of Top Emitters: The biggest limitation of the meeting was that three of the world’s highest Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emitters the US, China, and India were not represented at Santa Marta. 
  • Lacks Universal Binding Authority: Because it is a "coalition of the willing" operating outside the UNFCCC, its conclusions do not inherently mandate new international legal frameworks or mechanisms that apply globally. 
  • The Finance Hurdle: While commitments were made, actually developing the financial mechanisms required to support the massive economic transformations in poorer nations remains a formidable challenge. 
• Next Steps: Participating countries agreed to continue the process, with a second international conference scheduled for early 2027 in Tuvalu (archipelagic country in the Pacific Ocean), co-hosted by Ireland. 

UNFCCC’s Conference of the Parties (COP) 

• About: COP is the supreme decision-making body of the UNFCCC. Its member countries meet annually to review climate progress, negotiate agreements, and update commitments such as Nationally Determined Contributions. 
  • The UNFCCC was adopted at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit to prevent dangerous human interference with the climate system, and was later strengthened by the Kyoto Protocol (1997) and the Paris Agreement (2015). 
  • COP 1 was held in Berlin in 1995, and by COP30 (2025), participation has grown to 198 countries, making it one of the largest multilateral platforms under the UN. 
  • COP is supported by the Subsidiary Body for Implementation (SBI) and the Subsidiary Body for Scientific and Technological Advice (SBSTA), 
  • COP also serves as the CMP for the Kyoto Protocol and the CMA for the Paris Agreement. 
    • Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol (CMP) oversees the implementation of the Kyoto Protocol. 
    • Conference of the Parties serving as the meeting of the Parties to the Paris Agreement (CMA) oversees the implementation of the Paris Agreement. 
• COP Host: The COP meetings are held by rotation in five UN-designated geographical regions – Africa, Asia-Pacific, Eastern Europe, Latin America and Caribbean, and Western Europe and Others. 
  • Countries volunteer to host, and if multiple candidates emerge, the region selects one by consensus. 
  • Türkiye will host COP31 (November 2026), and Ethiopia will host COP32 in Addis Ababa in 2027. 

Read more: UNFCCC COP 30 in Belém, Brazil 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) 

1. What is the Santa Marta Climate Conference? 
It is an international initiative by a “coalition of the willing” to develop actionable roadmaps for phasing out fossil fuels outside the UNFCCC process. 

2. Why was the conference organized outside UNFCCC? 
Due to frustration with slow, consensus-based COP negotiations that have struggled to agree on fossil fuel phase-out. 

3. What is the Fossil Fuel Non-Proliferation Treaty proposal? 
It seeks binding commitments to limit fossil fuel supply and address gaps in global climate governance. 

4. What is a key limitation of the Santa Marta Conference? 
Absence of major emitters like the US, China, and India reduces its global effectiveness and impact. 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs) 

Q. “Momentum for Change: Climate Neutral Now” is an initiative launched by (2018)

(a) The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change  

(b) The UNEP Secretariat 

(c) The UNFCCC Secretariat 

(d) The World Meteorological Organisation 

Ans: (c)

Evolution of India’s Labor Movements

Source: TH 

Why in News? 

The history of Indian labor movements is a saga of transitioning from colonial "criminal conspiracy" charges to constitutional protections, currently facing new challenges under the Industrial Relations Code, 2020.  

How have Labor Movements Evolved in India? 

• Early Period (1850–1900): During this initial phase of industrialization (textile and jute mills), there were no formal unions. The movement was largely philanthropic, led by social reformers.  
  • First Agitation: In 1875, SS Bengalee led a protest in Bombay to highlight the poor conditions of women and children in factories. 
  • First Labor Association: NM Lokhande is considered the father of the Indian labor movement. He founded the Bombay Mill-Hands Association (1890). However, this was more of a welfare group than a modern trade union. 
  • Legislative Milestone: The Factories Act, 1881 was passed to regulate child labor and working hours. 
• Growth and Modern Unionism (1900–1947): The period surrounding World War I transformed the movement from welfare-oriented associations to organized political bodies.  
  • First Modern Union: The Madras Labour Union (1918), founded by BP Wadia, is considered India’s first systematic trade union. 
  • AITUC Formation (1920): The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) was formed to represent India at the International Labour Organization (ILO). Lala Lajpat Rai was its first president. 
    • In 1921, the Buckingham and Carnatic Mills case exposed the absence of legal protection, as union leaders were penalised for organising workers, treating unions as conspiracies under common law. 
    • Subsequently, N.M. Joshi pushed for legal safeguards, leading to sustained pressure for legislation. 
  • Legal Recognition: The Trade Unions Act, 1926, was a watershed, granting legal recognition to unions and protecting members from civil suits and criminal charges. 
    • Despite legalisation, colonial authorities imposed repression through measures like the Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929-1933) and restrictive laws such as the Trade Disputes Act, 1929 and Public Safety Bill 1928. 
    • This created a contradiction between the “letter” (legal protections) and the “spirit” (continued suppression) of labour rights. 
  • Role in Freedom Movement: The labour movement became closely linked with the nationalist struggle, with leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai and Jawaharlal Nehru advocating worker mobilisation. 
    • Splits occurred along ideological lines (Communist vs. Nationalist), leading to the formation of groups like the Indian Federation of Labour (established in 1941 by MN Roy after he split from AITUC due to ideological differences regarding World War II). 
• Post-Independence (1947–1991): After independence, the movement became deeply fragmented based on political party affiliations. Major labor federations formed were:   
  • Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC) (1947): Formed by the Congress party to counter communist influence.  
  • Hind Mazdoor Sabha (HMS) (1948): Formed by the Socialists like Ashok Mehta, T.S. Ramanujam and G.G. Mehta.  
  • Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh (BMS) (1955): Formed by the RSS (Bharatiya Mazdoor Sangh), now India's largest trade union.  
  • Centre of Indian Trade Unions (CITU) (1970): Formed as a split from AITUC by the CPI(M).  
• Post-Liberalization Era (1991–Present): Increased outsourcing and contractualization have weakened traditional union power in the formal sector. As of March 2026, India (Ministry of Labour & Employment) has 12 recognised central trade union organisations. 
  • In recent years, the government consolidated 29 labor laws into 4 Labor Codes (Code on Wages (2019), Industrial Relations Code (2020), Code on Social Security (2020), and Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions (OSH) Code (2020)).  
    • While aimed at ease of doing business, unions have expressed concerns over the dilution of strike rights and collective bargaining. E.g., while the Industrial Relations Code 2020 retains immunity clauses, it introduces a high 51% support threshold for union recognition and a 60-day notice period for strikes.  
    • Despite an estimated 23.5 million platform workers by 2030, the new Code remains silent on gig and platform workers, classifying them as "independent contractors" and denying them formal collective bargaining rights.  

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) 

1. Who is considered the Father of the Indian Labor Movement? 
N.M. Lokhande is the pioneer; he founded the Bombay Mill-Hands Association (1890) and successfully campaigned for the Factories Act, 1881 and weekly holidays. 

2. Who founded India’s first modern trade union? 
B.P. Wadia founded the Madras Labour Union in 1918, considered India’s first systematic trade union with regular membership and a relief fund. 

3. What was the legal significance of the Trade Union Act, 1926? 
It provided legal status to registered trade unions and protected office-bearers from criminal conspiracy charges under IPC Section 120B for legitimate collective bargaining activities. 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Questions (PYQs) 

Q. In India, which one of the following compiles information on industrial disputes, closures, retrenchments and lay-offs in factories employing workers? (2022)

(a) Central Statistics Office 

(b) Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade 

(c) Labour Bureau 

(d) National Technical Manpower Information System 

Ans: (c)

Q. Who among the following were the founders of the “Hind Mazdoor Sabha” established in 1948? (2018)

(a) B. Krishna Pillai, E.M.S. Namboodiripad and K.C. George 

(b) Jayaprakash Narayan, Deen Dayal Upadhyay and M.N. Roy 

(c) C.P. Ramaswamy Iyer, K. Kamaraj and Veeresalingam Pantulu 

(d) Ashok Mehta, T.S. Ramanujam and G.G. Mehta 

Ans: (d) 

Cell Broadcast System

Source: PIB 

The Ministry of Communications has launched the indigenous Cell Broadcast System (CBS), marking a shift in India’s disaster management from a reactive to a proactive framework through its first large-scale nationwide demonstration of capability. 

• The system has already been deployed in disaster situations in States like Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Uttarakhand, and for events such as the Char Dham Yatra. 
• About CBS: Cell Broadcast is a method of simultaneously sending short messages to multiple mobile phones within a defined geographic area. It was developed in the early 1990s by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute. It was first demonstrated in 1997 in Paris before becoming a global standard for disaster mitigation.  
  • Currently, India is using an SMS-based alert system which is operational across all 36 states and Union Territories. 
• Core Function: It integrated with the Common Alerting Protocol (CAP)-based SACHET platform, allowing alerts to be sent to mobile devices without needing individual phone numbers or internet connectivity.  
  • SACHET is India's Integrated Alert System (also known as the National Disaster Alert Platform), developed for real-time dissemination of disaster and emergency warnings (e.g., flash floods, tsunamis, or gas leak). 
• Indigenous Development: It was developed indigenously by the Centre for Development of Telematics (C-DOT) under the Department of Telecommunications (DoT), in partnership with the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) and the Ministry of Home Affairs (MHA).  
• Unmissable Alerts: Messages override silent/do-not-disturb modes, include siren, vibration, and a pop-up message, and support multiple languages (English, Hindi, and regional languages). 
• Technical Superiority over SMS: Unlike traditional SMS, CBS is a one-to-many broadcast system that delivers geo-targeted alerts simultaneously to millions of devices within seconds, without requiring phone numbers, user registration, apps, or subscriptions.  
  • It is unaffected by network congestion, works across 2G to 5G networks, ensures coverage for roaming and last-mile populations, and does not use personal data. 
• National & Global Impact: It strengthens India's early warning capabilities, supporting the goal of "Alert Citizens, Safe Nation."  
  • C-DoT has also successfully demonstrated CBS internationally in countries such as Mauritius, Cambodia, El Salvador, and Sri Lanka, aligning with the United Nations “Early Warnings for All” initiative. 
  • India joins over 30 countries, including Japan (J-Alert, 1st to adopt in 2007) and the USA (Wireless Emergency Alerts) in deploying this technology.  

Read More: Emergency Alert System 

70 Years of the Directorate of Enforcement

Source: TH 

The Directorate of Enforcement (ED), established on 1st May 1956, completed its 70 years on 1st May 2026. 

Directorate of Enforcement 

• About: ED is a premier financial investigation agency in India. It operates under the Department of Revenue, Ministry of Finance, and is primarily tasked with enforcing economic laws and fighting financial crimes.  
  • It is an executive body (non-statutory and non-constitutional) with pan-India jurisdiction, deriving its powers primarily from the Prevention of Money Laundering Act (PMLA) and the Foreign Exchange Management Act (FEMA), along with supplementary laws such as the Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018. 
• Core Mandates: Under the Prevention of Money Laundering Act, 2002 (PMLA), the ED has the authority to investigate the "proceeds of crime," attach and confiscate property believed to be derived from illegal activities, etc. 
  • Under the Foreign Exchange Management Act, 1999 (FEMA), the ED investigates contraventions of foreign exchange laws and regulations, such as illegal foreign exchange transactions, hawala dealings, etc. 
  • Under the Fugitive Economic Offenders Act, 2018 (FEOA), the ED can seize the properties of economic offenders (like high-profile loan defaulters) who have fled the country to avoid prosecution. 
• Organisational Structure: The ED is headed by a Director of Enforcement. It is headquartered in New Delhi. ED has 10 Zonal offices (e.g., Chennai, Kolkata, Chandigarh, etc.), each of which is headed by a Deputy Director and 11 sub-Zonal Offices (e.g., Jaipur, Jalandhar, Srinagar, etc.), each of which is headed by an Assistant Director.  
  • Officers are drawn from the Indian Revenue Service (IRS), Indian Police Service (IPS), and the agency's own cadre.  
• ED vs. CBI: 

Feature	Enforcement Directorate (ED)	Central Bureau of Investigation (CBI)
Focus	Financial crimes (Money laundering/Forex)	Corruption, Economic crimes, Special crimes
Parent Ministry	Ministry of Finance	Ministry of Personnel, Public Grievances & Pensions
Primary Law	PMLA and FEMA	Delhi Special Police Establishment Act, 1946
Power to Attach	Can attach property during investigation	Usually requires a court order for attachment

Read More: Enforcement Directorate 

Tiger Deaths in Kanha Tiger Reserve

Source: TH 

A tigress and her four cubs have died in Kanha Tiger Reserve, with wildlife officials suspecting an outbreak of Canine Distemper Virus (CDV) linked to lung infection.   

• Canine Distemper Virus (CDV) is a highly contagious viral disease affecting carnivores, causing respiratory, gastrointestinal, and neurological symptoms, spreading through direct contact or contaminated materials, often transmitted from domestic or stray dogs to wildlife. 

Kanha Tiger Reserve 

• Kanha Tiger Reserve is located in Madhya Pradesh and is one of India’s major tiger reserves, established as a national park in 1955 and included under Project Tiger in 1973. 
• It lies in the Maikal range of the Satpura hills and is part of the Central Indian highlands, known for its rich biodiversity. 
• The reserve has important wildlife corridors connecting it with Pench Tiger Reserve and Achanakmar Tiger Reserve, supporting landscape-level conservation.  
• It is home to key species such as tigers, leopards, barasingha (hard-ground swamp deer), sloth bear and wild dogs. The reserve is credited with the successful conservation of barasingha, which was once on the verge of extinction. 
• Vegetation includes sal forests, bamboo forests, grasslands (meadows), and wetlands, making it an important ecological hotspot. 

Read More: Kanha Tiger Reserve 

Guidance Document on Diabetes Mellitus in Children

Source: PIB 

The Ministry of Health and Family Welfare released the Guidance Document on Diabetes Mellitus in Children at the National Summit on Best Practices in Public Healthcare Service Delivery 2026.  

• Diabetes mellitus: It is a chronic metabolic disorder characterized by high blood sugar (hyperglycemia) due to insufficient insulin production (Type 1) or ineffective insulin use (Type 2).  
  • It causes severe, long-term damage to nerves and blood vessels, requiring lifestyle management and medications.  
  • Symptoms include frequent urination, extreme thirst, and unexplained weight loss. 
  • Type 1 diabetes mainly affects children and young individuals and is linked to genetics, while Type 2 diabetes is driven by lifestyle factors like obesity, inactivity, unhealthy diet, along with age and family history.  
• Guidance Document on Diabetes Mellitus in Children: It is a national-level structured approach designed to ensure early detection, proper diagnosis, effective treatment, and lifelong management of diabetes in children.  
  • It focuses on universal screening (0–18 years), linking community-level identification with treatment at district hospitals and advanced care at medical colleges. 
  • Promotes awareness of the early warning signs of Type 1 Diabetes: Toilet, Thirsty, Tired, and Thinner. 
  • The framework also provides a free and comprehensive care package, including insulin therapy, diagnostic services, and monitoring tools, making treatment accessible and affordable.  
    • By integrating care within the public health system, it ensures continuous follow-up, prevents complications, and strengthens India’s capacity to manage non-communicable diseases (NCDs) among children. 

Read more:  Diabetes Mellitus and Tuberculosis