Hate Speech in India

For Prelims: Hate speech, Fraternity, Preamble, Article 51A, Separation of Powers, Article 19 

For Mains: Freedom of speech vs reasonable restrictions (Article 19), Constitutional value of fraternity and social harmony, Effectiveness of criminal laws vs enforcement gaps

Source: TH 

Why in News?  

The Supreme Court of India held that hate speech arises from an “us versus them” mindset and undermines the constitutional value of fraternity. While recognizing its serious impact on society, the Court refused to mandate new laws, instead stressing better enforcement of existing legal provisions.

Summary

• The Supreme Court of India held that hate speech, driven by an “us vs. them” mindset, undermines constitutional fraternity and social harmony. 
• It emphasized that the issue lies in poor enforcement of existing laws, not absence of legislation, and called for stronger implementation rather than new laws.

What are the Key Observations of the Supreme Court Regarding Hate Speech?   

• Antithetical to Fraternity: The Court observed that hate speech is not merely a deviation from acceptable public discourse; it strikes at the moral fabric of the Republic and undermines the constitutional value of Fraternity mentioned in the Preamble. 
• Against Civilisational Ethos: The "us versus them" binary runs counter to India's deeper civilisational ethos of Vasudhaiva Kutumbakam (the world is one family).  
  • A nation that has historically embraced diverse communities cannot reduce citizenship to a basis for exclusion. 
• Role of Fundamental Duties: Referring to Article 51A(e), the Court reminded citizens of their fundamental duty to promote harmony and the spirit of common brotherhood amongst all people of India, transcending religious, linguistic, and regional diversities. 
• Refusal to Legislate (Separation of Powers): The Court stated that creating new criminal offenses lies squarely within the domain of the Legislature.  
  • Any attempt by the judiciary to frame statutory schemes against hate speech would violate the doctrine of the Separation of Powers. 
• No Legislative Vacuum: The Bench emphasized that existing penal laws (such as the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita (BNS) 2023) adequately address hate speech.  
  • The recurring violence and bloodshed are the result of poor enforcement and application of the law, not a lack of it. 
• Procedural Safeguards for Citizens Facing Hate Speech: 
  • Alternative Complaint Mechanisms: If a local police station refuses to register a cognizable offense, Section 173(4) of the Bharatiya Nagarik Suraksha Sanhita (BNSS), 2023, allows the complainant to send the information in writing via post to the Superintendent of Police (SP). 
  • No Prior Sanction Required: The Supreme Court clarified that a prior sanction is not necessary for a magistrate to take cognisance of a complaint regarding hate speech. 
  • Mandatory FIR Registration: Reiterating its stance from the landmark Tehseen Poonawalla case (2018), the Court stressed that police officers must register First Information Reports (FIRs) immediately upon receiving a complaint about hate speech, ensuring free and fair investigations under the supervisory gaze of jurisdictional magistrates. 

What is Hate Speech? 

• Definition: While there is no single, comprehensive legal definition of hate speech in India, the 267th Law Commission of India Report (2017) defined it generally as an incitement to hatred primarily against a group of persons defined in terms of race, ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, religious belief, and the like. 
• Context: It is any speech, gesture, conduct, writing, or display that may incite violence or prejudicial action against or by a protected individual or group, or because it disparages or intimidates a protected individual or group. 
• Legal Framework to Tackle Hate Speech: 
  • Constitutional Protection & Limits: Article 19(1)(a) guarantees free speech, while Article 19(2) allows reasonable restrictions to protect public order, dignity, sovereignty, and prevent incitement of offences. 
  • Legal Provisions: 
    • Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, 2023: Penalises promoting enmity between groups. 
      • Penalizes deliberate and malicious acts intended to outrage the religious feelings of any class by insulting its religion or religious beliefs. 
    • Representation of the People Act, 1951: Disqualifies candidates convicted of promoting communal disharmony. 
    • SC/ST (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989: Criminalizes intentional insults, intimidation, or derogatory speech made with the intent to humiliate a member of a Scheduled Caste or Scheduled Tribe in any place within public view. 
    • Protection of Civil Rights Act, 1955: Penalises acts promoting untouchability. 
  • Digital and Media Regulations 
    • Information Technology (Intermediary Guidelines and Digital Media Ethics Code) Rules, 2021: These rules require social media platforms and intermediaries to act swiftly to remove unlawful content, including hate speech, upon receiving a court order or notice from a government agency. 
    • Cable Television Network Regulation Act, 1995: The Programme Code strictly prohibits television broadcasts that contain attacks on religions or communities, or visuals/words contemptuous of religious groups, or which promote communal attitudes.

Judicial Pronouncements Related to Hate Speech 

• Shaheen Abdulla v. Union of India (2022): The Supreme Court noted the rising climate of hate speech and directed police to take suo motu action without waiting for formal complaints. 
• Tehseen S. Poonawalla v. Union of India (2018): The Supreme Court issued guidelines to curb hate speech-driven mob violence, including appointing district nodal officers to prevent lynching. 
• Shreya Singhal v. Union of India (2015): The Supreme Court struck down Section 66A of the Information Technology Act, of 2000 for vagueness, affirming that vague restrictions violate free speech under Article 19(1)(a). 
• Pravasi Bhalai Sangathan v. Union of India (2014): The Supreme Court urged the Law Commission to define hate speech and explore measures empowering the Election Commission to regulate it. 
• Suo Motu FIR Directives: In recent years, the Supreme Court has directed all States and Union Territories to register First Information Reports (FIRs) suo motu (on their own accord) against hate speech offenses, even without a formal complaint being filed, warning that hesitation to act will be viewed as contempt of court. 

Note: Hate crime is different from hate speech. A hate crime refers to actual criminal acts such as violence, assault, or property damage driven by bias against a person’s identity (religion, caste, race, gender, etc.), whereas hate speech is limited to expressions or communication without necessarily involving physical harm.

What are the Drivers of Hate Speech? 

• Psychological & Sociological Factors: Hate speech arises from prejudice, stereotyping, and an “us vs. them” mindset, reinforced by fear, insecurity, and lack of empathy toward other communities. 
• Political Factors: Electoral polarization, identity politics, and vote-bank strategies often fuel divisive rhetoric, creating hostility between groups. 
• Technological Factors: Social media and mainstream media both amplify hate through algorithms, echo chambers, anonymity, fake news, and TRP-driven sensationalism, accelerating the spread of polarizing content.  
  • Algorithmic Amplification: Social media platforms promote sensational and polarizing content to maximize engagement, which increases the spread and visibility of hate speech. 
  • Echo Chamber Effect: Users are repeatedly exposed to similar views and beliefs, reinforcing biases and limiting exposure to diverse perspectives. 
• Legal & Regulatory Issues: The absence of a clear definition of hate speech and poor enforcement of existing laws allow misuse under the guise of freedom of expression. 
• Socio-Economic Factors: Economic stress and social instability lead to scapegoating of marginalized groups, triggering increased hate speech. 
• Data Gaps: Tracking hate speech and related crimes in India remains a major challenge due to data gaps and underreporting, as the National Crime Records Bureau stopped publishing specific data on lynchings and hate crimes after 2017 citing reliability issues. 
  • However, its Crime in India 2022 report recorded a 45% increase in cases under IPC Section 153A (promoting enmity between groups) between 2021 and 2022, reflecting the growing prevalence and difficulty in accurately tracking hate speech-driven offences.

What Measures are Needed to Effectively Curb Hate Speech? 

• Legislative Clarity: Implement the recommendations of the 267th Law Commission Report and the Viswanathan Committee (2015), which suggested inserting specific, narrowly tailored sections in criminal law to define and penalize hate speech unambiguously. 
• Institutional Accountability: Ensure strict compliance with the SC’s Tehseen Poonawalla directives, including the appointment of Nodal Police Officers in every district and the mandatory filing of suo motu FIRs without waiting for formal complaints. 
• Global Best Practices: Emulate elements of Germany’s NetzDG Act, 2017 which imposes heavy, time-bound financial penalties on social media companies that fail to remove flagged hate speech within 24 hours. 
  • India should standardize police response to hate speech by adopting a national SOP based on the UN “Rabat Plan of Action,” which uses a six-part test—speaker, intent, content, context, reach, and likelihood of harm.  
    • This would reduce subjective bias at the local level, help distinguish between protected free speech under Article 19(1)(a) and criminal hate speech, and ensure timely FIR registration without political interference.  
• Independent Regulatory Body: Establish an independent statutory body, immune from political executive control, to monitor hate speech in real-time during election cycles. 
• Algorithmic Accountability: It requires moving beyond the blanket “safe harbor” immunity under Section 79 of the IT Act by shifting to a “duty of care” framework, similar to the EU’s Digital Services Act.  
  • This would legally mandate social media platforms to conduct independent audits of their algorithms to prevent amplification of polarizing content, and compel them to deploy advanced Natural Language Processing (NLP) systems trained in Indian vernacular languages, where most unchecked hate speech occurs.

Conclusion  

Hate speech is the weaponization of free speech. To safeguard the Republic's moral fabric, the State must transition from reactive policing to proactive constitutionalism. Upholding Article 19(2) with absolute impartiality is non-negotiable to translate the constitutional promise of dignity and fraternity into a lived reality.  

Drishti Mains Question:

“Hate speech is not merely a law-and-order issue but a threat to constitutional morality.”Discuss. 

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) 

1. What is hate speech as per Indian legal understanding?
It refers to speech that incites hatred or violence against groups based on identity such as religion, caste, or ethnicity (Law Commission, 267th Report). 

2. What constitutional provisions regulate hate speech in India?
Article 19(1)(a) guarantees free speech, while Article 19(2) allows restrictions for public order, dignity, and prevention of incitement. 

3. Which laws address hate speech in India?
Provisions under the Bharatiya Nyaya Sanhita, BNSS 2023, Representation of the People Act, and SC/ST Act cover hate speech-related offences. 

4. What did the Supreme Court emphasize in the 2026 judgment?
It stressed better enforcement of existing laws rather than creating new legislation. 

5. What are key measures to curb hate speech?
Strong law enforcement, algorithmic accountability, legal clarity, digital literacy, and institutional reforms. 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)   

Mains

Q. What do you understand by the concept “freedom of speech and expression”? Does it cover hate speech also? Why do the films in India stand on a slightly different plane from other forms of expression? Discuss. (2014)

Revenue Deficit States and Challenge of Fiscal Stability

Source: TH 

Why in News?

The Ministry of Finance’s Monthly Economic Review (April 2026) has highlighted that States with revenue deficits and high debt burdens may face fiscal stress, limited flexibility in responding to shocks, and risk violating the ‘golden rule’ of fiscal financing.

What are the Key Highlights of India's Fiscal Outlook? 

Union 

• Central Resilience: The Union government maintains a cautious fiscal path supported by conservative tax buoyancy assumptions (0.8) and the newly created Economic Stabilisation Fund, which provides a buffer against external shocks without derailing fiscal deficit targets.  

States 

• State-Level Revenue Deficits: Out of 18 large states, 9 are in revenue deficit, including Himachal Pradesh (-2.4%), Punjab (-2.2%), Kerala (-2.1%), Andhra Pradesh (-1.1%), Rajasthan (-1.1%), Haryana (-0.9%), Karnataka (-0.7%), Maharashtra (-0.7%), and Chhattisgarh (-0.3%). 
• Interest Payment Burdens: High debt servicing limits "degrees of freedom" for stressed states; Punjab faces the highest stress, spending 22.8% of its revenue receipts on interest payments. 
• Fiscal Deficit Breach vs. Deliberate Investment: While 13 states budget a fiscal deficit at or above 3% of GSDP, some cases like Odisha (3.5% fiscal deficit but 3% revenue surplus) represent deliberate capital outlay (6.5% of GSDP) rather than fiscal stress. 
• Revenue Surplus Leaders: 8 states projected revenue surpluses, notably Odisha (3%), Jharkhand (2.5%), Uttar Pradesh (1.6%), Goa (1.3%), Gujarat (0.8%), Uttarakhand (0.6%), Telangana (0.3%), and Bihar (0.1%). 
• 16th Finance Commission (FC) Impact: FY 2026-27 is the first year of the 16th Finance Commission period, introducing risks related to changes in devolution shares and the absence of Revenue Deficit Grants. 
• Debt Risks: With aggregate state liabilities reaching 35–45% of Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP), stressed states may demand higher central transfers, complicating the Centre's own fiscal consolidation path.  

What Concerns are Associated with India's Fiscal Outlook? 

Union Government’s Fiscal Concerns 

• Breach of Fiscal Deficit Target: Although the 2026-27 Budget projected a fiscal deficit of 4.3%, some research firms like BMI suggest it may breach this to hit 4.5% due to increased emergency spending. 
• Pressure on GDP Growth: The Union’s initial 7–7.4% real GDP growth forecast for FY 2026-27 is under pressure. A potential slowdown directly compresses the tax base, making it harder to maintain revenue collection targets. E.g., IMF projects a growth of 6.5% only for 2026-27 and CPI inflation of 4.7% for India. 
• Energy and Subsidy Bill: With the Indian crude basket hovering around USD 113– USD 115 per barrel, the Centre faces massive import bills. Elevated global crude prices compel the Union to absorb costs via higher fertilizer and petroleum subsidies to shield consumers, directly draining the Economic Stabilisation Fund.  
• Cost-Push Inflation and Demand Compression: Disruptions in critical shipping lanes like the Strait of Hormuz have driven up freight and insurance costs. This has caused wholesale inflation to surge to 3.88%, forcing businesses to pass input costs to consumers, which creates demand compression (reduced consumer spending). 

State Governments’ Fiscal Concerns 

• Revenue Volatility: With rising oil prices (Brent crude exceeding USD 120/barrel), states face immense pressure to cut VAT rates to provide relief to consumers.  
  • High "cost-push" inflation is threatening to compress discretionary spending. If consumers pull back on non-essential goods, the growth in State GST (SGST) will likely decelerate.    
• Breaching the "Golden Rule" of Fiscal Financing: The most significant threat is to states failing the golden rule—maintaining a zero revenue deficit. Nine of the 18 major states analyzed (including Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, and Kerala) are running revenue deficits, meaning they are borrowing to fund recurring consumption (salaries, subsidies) instead of asset creation. 
• Bailout Pressures on the Centre: Stressed states with compressed fiscal space are increasingly likely to demand higher central transfers or relaxation of borrowing limits at precisely the moment the Centre is attempting its own fiscal consolidation. 

Golden Rule of Fiscal Financing 

• About: The ‘golden rule’ of fiscal financing is a principle of public finance which states that a government should borrow only to invest in capital projects, not to fund its day-to-day (current) spending.  
  • Essentially, it mandates that over an economic cycle, the government should balance its current budget, ensuring that taxpayers of today pay for the services they consume today, while the costs of long-term assets are shared with the future generations who will benefit from them.  
• Need for Golden Rule:  
  • Intergenerational Equity: Borrowing for current consumption (like salaries) unfairly burdens future generations, whereas debt for long-term infrastructure like bridges is equitable, as those future citizens benefit from the assets they help repay.     
  • Economic Growth: Infrastructure investment typically has a high fiscal multiplier, meaning it creates jobs and boosts GDP, making it easier for the government to repay the debt in the future.  
  • Fiscal Discipline: It prevents governments from taking the "easy way out" by borrowing money to fund popular but temporary social schemes or subsidies, which can lead to unsustainable debt levels and inflation.

What Steps are Needed to Strengthen India's Fiscal Outlook? 

Strategies for the Union Government 

• Aggressive Energy Diplomacy: Strengthening the fiscal outlook requires a pivot toward G2G (Government-to-Government) deals with non-West Asian energy producers (such as Russia, Brazil, and Guyana). This reduces the "risk premium" paid for crude oil and LNG, directly lowering the Union’s import bill and protecting the trade balance.  
• Capital Expenditure (Capex) Prioritization: To maintain a 7% growth trajectory, the Center should protect its Capex budget for high-multiplier sectors like Green Hydrogen and Semiconductors.  
• Monetary-Fiscal Coordination: The Finance Ministry must work closely with the RBI to manage the Exchange Rate. A stable Rupee is essential to prevent "imported inflation" from ballooning the cost of government debt and essential imports.  

Strategies for State Governments 

• Diversifying Revenue Streams: States should reduce their heavy reliance on VAT from petroleum products, which is highly volatile during conflict. Strengthening collections from State Excise and Stamp Duties through digitization can provide a more stable fiscal cushion. 
• Adopting Green Energy Mandates: To shield state budgets from fluctuating fuel costs for public transport and government operations, states should accelerate the transition to Electric Vehicles (EVs) and decentralized solar power for irrigation (solar pumps). This reduces the state-level fuel subsidy burden over time. 
• Prudent Debt Management: States need to adhere to the FRBM (Fiscal Responsibility and Budget Management) targets of keeping fiscal deficits within 3% of GSDP and ending off-budget borrowings.  
  • In times of conflict-induced high interest rates, states should prioritize "productive borrowing"—investing only in projects that generate immediate employment or revenue—rather than funding revenue deficits through debt. 
• Incentivizing Performance: The 16th FC has introduced compliance-driven grants (20% performance-based). States should focus on property tax reforms and administrative efficiency to unlock these funds. 

Conclusion 

The West Asia conflict presents a dual challenge of rising energy costs and sub-national fiscal stress. While the Centre’s Economic Stabilisation Fund offers a temporary buffer, long-term stability hinges on states adhering to the "Golden Rule of Financing" and transitioning toward productive capital outlay to ensure resilient federal growth. 

Drishti Mains Questions

"The 'Golden Rule' of fiscal financing is essential for sub-national economic stability." In light of the current fiscal divergence among Indian states, evaluate the challenges in achieving zero revenue deficits.

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) 

1. What is the "Golden Rule" of fiscal financing? 
It refers to the principle that governments should only borrow to fund capital expenditure (asset creation) and maintain a zero revenue deficit, ensuring borrowings do not fund day-to-day consumption. 

2. How does the Economic Stabilisation Fund assist the Union government during global crises? 
The ESF acts as a fiscal buffer in the Public Account, allowing the Centre to absorb near-term "supply shocks" like high crude prices without immediately deviating from its fiscal deficit targets. 

3. How does cost-push inflation lead to "Demand Compression" in the current fiscal outlook? 
Rising freight and energy costs force businesses to pass expenses to consumers, leading to wholesale inflation which reduces discretionary spending and slows State GST (SGST) collections. 

UPSC Civil Services, Previous Year Questions (PYQ) 

Prelims 

Q. Which one of the following is likely to be the most inflationary in its effect? 

(a) Repayment of public debt   

(b) Borrowing from the public to finance a budget deficit   

(c) Borrowing from the banks to finance a budget deficit   

(d) Creation of new money to finance a budget deficit   

Ans: (d)

Q. In the context of governance, consider the following: (2010)

1. Encouraging Foreign Direct Investment inflows 
2. Privatization of higher educational Institutions 
3. Down-sizing of bureaucracy 
4. Selling/offloading the shares of Public Sector Undertakings 

Which of the above can be used as measures to control the fiscal deficit in India?   

(a) 1, 2 and 3    

(b) 2, 3 and 4   

(c) 1, 2 and 4    

(d) 3 and 4 only   

Ans: (d)

---

Mains 

Q. Distinguish between Capital Budget and Revenue Budget. Explain the components of both these Budgets. (2021)

Q. Do you agree with the view that steady GDP growth and low inflation have left the Indian economy in good shape? Give reasons in support of your arguments. (2019)

Cauvery Water Management Authority

Source: TOI 

Why in News? 

The Cauvery Water Management Authority (CWMA) has reaffirmed the 2018 Supreme Court verdict by directing Karnataka to ensure the timely release of water to Tamil Nadu for the month of May 2026. 

What is Cauvery Water Management Authority? 

• About: The Central Government, in June 2018, established two key bodies under the Cauvery Water Management Scheme 2018, i.e., the Cauvery Water Management Authority (CWMA) and the Cauvery Water Regulation Committee (CWRC).  
  • Notified under Section 6A of the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956, the CWMA is a statutory, quasi-judicial body. It ensures the implementation of the modified Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT) award as directed by the 2018 Supreme Court ruling.   
• Composition & Structure: The authority is headquartered in New Delhi and operates under the Union Ministry of Jal Shakti.  
  • Chairperson: A senior eminent engineer or an IAS officer (Secretary/Additional Secretary rank) appointed by the Centre for a 5-year term.  
  • Members:  
    • Two Full-Time Members (Water Resources and Agriculture). 
    • Two Part-Time Members from the Central Government. 
    • Four Part-Time Members representing the basin states (Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Puducherry). 
  • Secretary: An engineer from the Central Water Engineering Services.  
• Key Functions: The CWMA's primary goal is to "secure compliance and implementation" of the final water-sharing formula:  
  • Water Apportionment: It regulates and controls the release of water from reservoirs in the Cauvery basin (like Krishnarajasagara and Kabini in Karnataka, and Mettur in Tamil Nadu). 
  • Distress Sharing: In years of poor rainfall, the CWMA determines how the "distress" (water shortage) will be shared proportionately among the states. 
  • Monitoring: It collects daily data on water levels, inflows, and storage positions with the help of its subordinate body, the CWRC. 
  • Efficiency: It advises states on improving water-use efficiency through micro-irrigation and changing cropping patterns. 
• Significance: The CWMA was created to replace the earlier ad-hoc Cauvery River Authority and provide a permanent, independent mechanism for water management. It aims to reduce frequent litigation and political conflicts between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu by providing a technical and administrative platform for monitoring and decision-making. 

Cauvery (Kaveri) River 

• About: Kaveri River is one of South India's most significant rivers, often referred to as the "Ganga of the South" (Dakshin Bharat ki Ganga). The dispute over its waters is one of the oldest and most complex inter-state water conflicts in India.  
• Origin: It rises at Talakaveri in the Brahmagiri Range of the Western Ghats (Kodagu district, Karnataka).  
• Course: It flows for about 800 km in a southeasterly direction through Karnataka and Tamil Nadu, ultimately emptying into the Bay of Bengal near Poompuhar.  
• Drainage Basin: The basin covers parts of Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and the Union Territory of Puducherry.  
• Key Tributaries:  
  • Left Bank: Harangi, Hemavati, Shimsha, Arkavati. 
  • Right Bank: Lakshmana Tirtha, Kabini, Suvarnavathi, Bhavani, Noyyal, Amaravati. 
• Key Dams: Krishna Raja Sagara (KRS) in Karnataka and Mettur Dam (Stanley Reservoir) in Tamil Nadu.  

Kaveri River Dispute 

• Colonial Roots: The dispute began with two controversial agreements (1892 and 1924) between the Princely State of Mysore (now Karnataka) and the Madras Presidency (now Tamil Nadu). Madras, being a lower riparian state with established irrigation, secured rights to a major share. 
• Post-Independence Tension: After 1947, Karnataka argued that these colonial-era agreements were unfair and limited its ability to develop irrigation for its own farmers. 
• Constitutional Mechanism: Under Article 262, Parliament enacted the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956. In 1990, the Cauvery Water Disputes Tribunal (CWDT) was formed. 
• The "Golden Rule" Conflict: The friction usually peaks during distress years (low monsoon). Karnataka (upper riparian) often prioritizes its drinking water and irrigation needs, while Tamil Nadu (lower riparian) demands the release of water to save its delta crops. 

Supreme Court Judgment (2018) 

In February 2018, the Supreme Court delivered a landmark final verdict, modifying the 2007 Tribunal award. Key directives were: 

• National Asset: The Court declared that no state has proprietary rights over a river; it is a national asset. 
• Drinking Water for Bengaluru: Karnataka was granted an additional 14.75 TMC (Thousand Million Cubic feet) of water, specifically acknowledging the drinking water needs of Bengaluru. 
• Revised Allocation (Annual Share):  
  • Tamil Nadu: 404.25 TMC (Reduced from 419 TMC). 
  • Karnataka: 284.75 TMC (Increased from 270 TMC). 
  • Kerala: 30 TMC. 
  • Puducherry: 7 TMC. 
• Creation of CWMA: The Court directed the Centre to set up the Cauvery Water Management Authority (CWMA) and the Cauvery Water Regulation Committee (CWRC) to ensure the judgment is implemented fairly.   

Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) 

1. What is the statutory basis of the CWMA? 
The CWMA was established under Section 6A of the Inter-State River Water Disputes Act, 1956, following the Supreme Court’s 2018 directive. 

2. Which states are represented as part-time members in the CWMA? 
The four basin states/UTs represented are Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Puducherry. 

3. How does the CWMA handle years of low rainfall? 
The Authority implements a "distress sharing formula" to ensure that water shortages are shared proportionately among all basin states. 

UPSC Civil Services Examination, Previous Year Question (PYQ)   

Q. Which of the following Protected Areas are located in Cauvery basin? (2020)

1. Nagarhole National Park 
2. Papikonda National Park 
3. Sathyamangalam Tiger Reserve 
4. Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary 

Select the correct answer using the code given below: 

(a) 1 and 2 only 

(b) 3 and 4 only 

(c) 1, 3 and 4 only 

(d) 1, 2, 3 and 4 

Ans: (c)

International Workers' Day 2026 (May Day)

Source: BS 

Every year, the 1^st of May is observed globally as International Workers' Day, commonly known as May Day or Labour Day. It is a day dedicated to honoring the historic struggles, sacrifices, and subsequent gains made by the labor movement and workers worldwide.  

• May Day: Traces its origins to the Haymarket Affair at Haymarket Square in Chicago, where a peaceful workers’ rally demanding an eight-hour workday turned violent after a bomb was thrown, amid the harsh conditions of the Industrial Revolution, when workers were often forced to labor 10–16 hours in unsafe environments.  
  • In 1889, the Second International declared 1st May as International Workers’ Day to honor the Haymarket Martyrs, symbolizing the global struggle for fair working hours based on the principle of 8 hours for work, 8 hours for rest, and 8 hours for personal life. 
  • The International Labour Organization theme for May Day 2026 is “Ensuring a Healthy Psychosocial Working Environment” highlights rising workplace stress, burnout, and mental health issues, urging governments and employers to prioritize psychosocial risk management alongside physical well-being. 
• First Celebration in India: May Day was first formally observed in India on 1st  May 1923, in Madras (Chennai). 
  • The event was organized by Malayapuram Singaravelu Chettiar, a communist leader and the founder of the Labour Kisan Party of Hindustan. 
  • The 1923 celebration is historically significant as it marked the first time the symbolic Red Flag (representing labor and communist ideology) was hoisted in India. 

Constitutional Provisions for Workers in India 

Category	Article	Provision / Key Feature
Fundamental Rights (Part III)	Article 19(1)(c)	Right to form associations or trade unions
	Article 23	Prohibits human trafficking and forced labour (begar)
	Article 24	Prohibits child labour below 14 years in hazardous work
Directive Principles (Part IV)	Article 39(e)	Protects workers’ health and strength from exploitation
	Article 41	Right to work, education, and public assistance
	Article 42	Just and humane working conditions and maternity relief
	Article 43	Living wage, decent standard of life, social and cultural opportunities
	Article 43A	Workers’ participation in management (added by 42nd Amendment, 1976)

Read more:  Transforming India’s Labour Force 

Kerala Restoration of Sacred Groves

Source: TH 

Kerala has launched a strategic pilot programme to restore and conserve Sacred Groves (Kavus), integrating cultural tradition with scientific biodiversity management through local participation.  

• Kavu Nurseries: A specialized initiative to establish nurseries for propagating native sacred grove plant species, ensuring the availability of endemic and medicinal flora for restoration.  
• Invasive Species Management: It focuses on the systematic identification and removal of invasive species and plastic waste that threaten the ecological health of these micro-ecosystems. 
• Eco-Restoration Activities: It include biodiversity assessments, bio-fencing using native plants, and the rejuvenation of associated ponds to support wildlife during summer. 

Sacred Groves

• About: Sacred Groves are patches of pristine forest or natural vegetation that are traditionally protected by local communities, usually dedicated to a local deity or ancestral spirits.  
  • In these groves, all forms of vegetation and wildlife are considered "sacred." Exploitation—such as cutting trees, hunting, or even removing fallen leaves—is strictly prohibited by local custom and religious taboos. It is an in-situ conservation method. 
• Sacred Groves in India:

Region	Local Name
Bihar & Jharkhand	Sarna
Rajasthan	Orans
Maharashtra	Deorais
Meghalaya	Law Kyntangs
Kerala	Kavu
Karnataka	Devara Kadu

• Significance:  

 

• Legal and Institutional Framework for Protection: 
  • Biological Diversity Act, 2002: Provides for the protection of these groves through Biodiversity Management Committees (BMCs) at the local level. 
  • Wild Life (Protection) Amendment Act, 2002: Introduced the category of "Community Reserves," allowing the government to provide legal protection to sacred groves while involving the local community. 
  • People’s Biodiversity Register (PBR): BMCs are tasked with documenting the traditional knowledge and species found within these groves. 

Read More: Sacred Groves 

Public Accounts Committee

Source: TH 

K.C. Venugopal has been reappointed as the chairman of the Public Accounts Committee (PAC) of Parliament for the 2026–27 term. 

• About: In India’s parliamentary system, the PAC plays a crucial role in ensuring executive accountability to the legislature by scrutinizing government expenditure and financial management. 
• Genesis and Evolution: The PAC was established in 1921 following the Montague-Chelmsford Reforms and later evolved into a full-fledged parliamentary committee after the Constitution came into force in 1950.  
  • Since 1967, it has been a well-established convention in the Indian Parliament that the Chairman of the PAC is appointed from the Opposition party, strengthening accountability.  
• Composition: The PAC consists of 22 members, including 15 from Lok Sabha and 7 from Rajya Sabha, elected annually through proportional representation by single transferable vote.  
  • Ministers are not eligible to be members, ensuring independence, and the tenure of members is limited to one year.  
  • The Chairman of the Committee is appointed by the Speaker of Lok Sabha. 
• Core Functions: The Committee examines the Appropriation Accounts, Finance Accounts, and reports of the Comptroller and Auditor General (CAG).  
  • It ensures that public funds are used legally, efficiently, and for the purposes approved by Parliament, thereby maintaining financial discipline. 
• Scope of Examination: The PAC goes beyond checking legality and evaluates the efficiency, economy, and propriety of government expenditure.  
  • It identifies cases of financial irregularities, wasteful expenditure, and losses, and recommends corrective and disciplinary measures to prevent recurrence. 
• Role in Excess Expenditure: When government spending exceeds the amount sanctioned by Parliament, the PAC examines the reasons and submits its recommendations.  
  • Such excesses are later regularized under Article 115 of the Constitution, ensuring parliamentary control over finances. 
• Significance: The PAC acts as a financial watchdog of Parliament, promoting transparency, accountability, and prudent use of public money. It helps Parliament manage the complexity of financial oversight in a modern administrative state. 
• Link with CAG: The functioning of the PAC is closely linked to the CAG, whose audit reports form the basis of its work.  
  • The CAG conducts various audits of accountancy, regularity, propriety, and performance and is regarded as the “friend, philosopher, and guide” of the Committee. 
  • PAC requires the government to submit Action Taken Notes/Reports on its recommendations (generally within about six months), and systems like the Audit Para Monitoring System (APMS) have been introduced to monitor Action Taken Notes/Reports (ATNs/ATRs) and reduce pendency.

Read more:  PAC to Review Regulatory Bodies Performance 

Forest Workers’ Strike at Bandipur National Park

Source: TH 

Temporary Forest workers at Bandipur National Park have begun an indefinite strike, demanding the removal of the outsourcing system and seeking direct wage payments from the Forest Department. 

Bandipur Tiger Reserve 

• Location: Bandipur Tiger Reserve is located in Karnataka and was established as a national park in 1974, later becoming a part of Project Tiger. 
• Landscape: It lies within the Western Ghats landscape, which supports about one-eighth of the world’s tiger population, and forms part of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, the first Biosphere Reserve in India (1986).  
  • The reserve is also part of the Mysore Elephant Reserve, home to the world's largest population of Asian Elephants.  
• Connectivity: The reserve shares boundaries with Nagarhole National Park, Mudumalai National Park, and Wayanad Wildlife Sanctuary, forming a contiguous habitat within the Bandipur–Nagarahole–Wayanad–Mudumalai–Sathyamangalam landscape across Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala. 
• Fauna: The reserve hosts rich wildlife, including tigers, elephants, leopards, gaurs, and various deer species, making it a biodiversity hotspot. 
• Flora: Vegetation mainly consists of dry deciduous forests, moist deciduous forests, and scrublands, contributing to high ecological diversity. 

Read More: Joint Effort to Conserve Wildlife at Bandipur 

India’s 1st Green Methanol Production Plant

Source: TH 

The invasive shrub Prosopis juliflora, which has long threatened biodiversity in Kutch’s Banni Grasslands, is set to be used as feedstock for India’s first green methanol production plant. 

• About: The plant at Deendayal Port Authority, Gujarat, will have an initial capacity of 5 tonnes per day and use gasification technology to convert biomass into syngas (H₂, CO, CO₂), which is then processed into methanol. 
  • It is a demonstration project, with future plants expected to scale up to 100–500 tonnes per day.  
• Significance: The project supports India’s push for green ports and clean shipping fuels, reduces dependence on imported fossil fuels, and aligns with the International Maritime Organisation’s goal of achieving net-zero emissions in international shipping by 2050, thereby promoting the adoption of green fuels like methanol.

Green Methanol

• Green methanol is a low-carbon, renewable liquid fuel and chemical feedstock produced from biomass (bio-methanol) or green hydrogen. 
• It acts as a sustainable, net-zero alternative to conventional fossil-based methanol, capable of reducing greenhouse gas emissions by 60–95%. 

Prosopis juliflora 

• Prosopis juliflora is a Mexican-origin invasive shrub that was introduced in India during the 1920s and later widely expanded in Gujarat in 1961 to check desertification. 
• It is known by different local names such as gando baval (Gujarat), vilayati keekar (North India), and velikathan (Tamil Nadu). 
• Over time, it has aggressively spread across the Banni grasslands, crowding out native grasses, reducing biodiversity, and degrading fragile ecosystems.  

Read More: Fueling the Future: India's Methanol Economy 

US Returns 657 Stolen Antiquities to India

Source: TH 

The United States has repatriated 657 antiquities valued at nearly USD 14 million to India, marking a significant victory in the global crackdown on transnational cultural property trafficking networks.  

Key Recovered Antiquities 

• Bronze Avalokiteshvara: A standout piece is a bronze figure of Avalokiteshvara (Bodhisattva of Infinite Compassion in Mahayana Buddhism) from Sirpur (Chhattisgarh), inscribed by the craftsman Dronaditya. He is seated on an inscribed double-lotus base. 
• Red Sandstone Buddha: A standing red sandstone Buddha with the right hand raised in abhaya mudra, symbolising protection/fearlessness.  
• Dancing Ganesha: Sandstone figure of Dancing Ganesha looted from a temple in Madhya Pradesh. 

Procedure for Bringing Back the Antiquities 

• Pre-1947 (Colonial Period): Retrieval depends on cultural diplomacy, bilateral negotiations, and goodwill. No international legal framework existed.  
• 1947–1976: Recovery relied on bilateral diplomacy and domestic laws such as the Antiquities (Export Control) Act, 1947. The 1970 UNESCO Convention was not yet ratified by India (ratified in 1977), making returns difficult due to limited evidence and international mechanisms.  
• Post-1976: Governed by the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972, which came into force in 1976. The Act prohibits the export of antiquities by private persons; export is permitted only by the Central Government or authorised agencies, and only with the required permit. Therefore, unauthorised export after 1976 is legally easier to challenge. 

Antiquity 

According to the Antiquities and Art Treasures Act, 1972, an "antiquity" includes any of the following categories, provided they meet specific age criteria:  

• General Artefacts (100+ Years Old): Any item that has existed for at least 100 years, including artistic works, detached architectural pieces, objects illustrating bygone eras, and items of general historical interest. 
• Manuscripts and Documents (75+ Years Old): Any manuscript, record, or other document that is of scientific, historical, literary, or aesthetic value and has existed for not less than 75 years is legally an antiquity. 

Read More: Menace of Missing Antiquities in India